Palm grass (Setaria palmifolia)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Setaria palmifolia (Koenig) Stapf
Common name(s):	palm grass

This weed is not known to be naturalised in Victoria

Habitat:

This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007).
Requires full sun to partial shade (Christman 2003). Prefers fertile, moist soil, but can grow in sandy soils. An aggressive invasive species (Allison and Vitousek). In North Eastern India S. palmifolia is one of the most serious weeds in tea plantations (Dutta 1965). It will displace forages in pastures and natives (Motooka 2003). Grows in damp and shady areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). Also disturbed and open forest, shrub-lands, herb fields and bare land (Weed Busters NZ). S. palmifolia can be spread along roadsides (Stewart 2008). Can grow anywhere up to approximately 3600m (Zipcode Zoo 2008). Once established is quite drought tolerant, mature plants are cold resistant, but are not tolerant of heavy frosts,
and moderate tolerance to salt (Weed Busters NZ). Native to tropical areas.

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Broadacre cropping; forestry; horticulture perennial; horticulture seasonal; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation; water

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; forby forest; damp forest; riparian; wet forest; granitic hillslopes; basalt grassland; alluvial plains grassland; alluvial plains woodland; riverine woodland/forest; freshwater wetland (ephemeral); chenopod shrubland; hummock-grass mallee

Colours indicate possibility of Setaria palmifolia infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of palm grass

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	Perennial grass (Clayton et al) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993) This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). S. palmifolia can form thick monocultures, excluding other vegetation. Size of plant (<1.5m) could inhibit access to important areas. - Low nuisance value. Impeding individual access; unable to walk to waterways.	ML	MH
2. Reduce tourism?	Perennial grass (Clayton et al) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993) This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007) Leaf stalks covered in irritating hairs (Auckland Regional Council 2007). S. palmifolia can form thick monocultures, excluding other vegetation. Size of plant (<1.5m) could greatly hinder access to important areas and other recreational uses - Some recreational uses affected.	MH	MH
3. Injurious to people?	Leaves hairy on both sides (Clayton et al). Stiff hairs at nodes make it irritating to handle (Motooka 2003). Leaf stalks covered in irritating hairs and prickly root sheaths (Auckland Regional Council 2007). Presence of hairs and moderately prickly roots may potentially injurious. - Toxic properties at most times of the year, may be a major component in allergies and/or asthma	MH	H
4. Damage to cultural sites?	Perennial grass (Clayton et al) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). The large leaves have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). - Moderate Structural effect	MH	MH
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). The large leaves have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). Usually grows in damp, shady areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993) including wet forest and along streams. S. palmifolia is a terrestrial weed growing in moist areas such as mesic valleys, wet forest and along stream banks. It should not impact greatly on the flow of water. - Little or negligible effect to water flow.	L	MH
6. Impact water quality?	Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). The large leaves have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). Usually grows in damp, shady areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). - Noticeable but moderate effects on both dissolved O2 and light, causing increased algal growth.	MH	MH
7. Increase soil erosion?	This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007) Rhizome mass would reduce erosion rates by holding soils together. - Low probability of large scale soil movement; potential to reduce probability of soil erosion	L	MH
8. Reduce biomass?	This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). Dense rhizome mass may increase biomass	L	M
9. Change fire regime?	No information	MH	L
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Estuarine Wetland (V); CMA = East Gippsland; Bioregion = East Gippsland Lowland; H CLIMATE potential. This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). - Monoculture within a specific layer, displaces all species within strata/layer.	H	MH
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Riparian Scrub/ Swampy Riparian Woodland (D); CMA = Corangamite; Bioregion = Otway Plain; H CLIMATE potential. This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). - Monoculture within a specific layer, displaces all species within strata/layer.	H	MH
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Damp Forest (LC); CMA = Port Phillip and Westernport; Bioregion = Highlands _Southern Fall; H CLIMATE potential. This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). - Monoculture within a specific layer, displaces all species within strata/layer.	H	MH
11. Impact on structure?	This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). S. palmifolia forms vigorous monospecific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) - The ability of S. palmifolia to form monocultures in conditions where water is available means there will be a potentially major effect on all layers. Forms monocultures; no other strata layers present.	H	MH
12. Effect on threatened flora?	In Hawaii this species competes heavily with endangered native species Clermontia peleanu (Bruegmann and Zablan 2006). S. palmifolia also displaces natives in disturbed areas in mesic to wet forests (Motooka 2003) S. palmifolia forms vigorous mono-specific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (Smith 1985). - The ability for S. palmifolia to form dense clumps and out-compete most species could potentially mean that any population of Bioregional Priority 1A species are reduced or any population of a VROT species is replaced.	H	MH
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	This species displaces forages in pastures and natives in disturbed areas in wetter habitats (Smith 1985). S. palmifolia also displaces natives in disturbed areas in mesic to wet forests (Motooka 2003) S. palmifolia forms vigorous mono-specific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (PIER). S. palmifolia has the potential to displace native flora and pasture species, and reduce native habitat by competing heavily for resources. This may impact heavily on threatened fauna. - Reduction in habitat for threatened species, leading to reduction in numbers of individuals, but not local extinction.	MH	MH
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	This species displaces forages in pastures and natives in disturbed areas in wetter habitats (PEIR). S. palmifolia also displaces natives in disturbed areas in mesic to wet forests (Motooka 2003) S. palmifolia forms vigorous mono-specific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (PIER). S. palmifolia has the potential to displace native flora and pasture species, and reduce native habitat by competing heavily for resources. This may impact heavily on non-threatened fauna. - Reduction in habitat for threatened species, leading to reduction in numbers of individuals, but not local extinction.	MH	MH
15. Benefits fauna?	Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). The large leaves have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (PIER). Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). - Provides an alternative food source or harbour for desirable species	ML	MH
16. Injurious to fauna?	Stiff hairs at nodes may be irritating (Motooka et al 2003) Leaves hairy on both sides (Clayton et al). Small hairs on leaves and nodes of the plant would provide minimal irritation to fauna. - No effect	L	MH
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) Clump size and palatability of this species provides high volumes of potential food for pest species. - Supplies food for one or more minor pest species.	ML	MH
18. Provides harbour?	Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993) - In large dense clumps, this species has the capacity to provide harbour or permanent warrens for rabbits and foxes throughout the year.	H	MH
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	A common and problematic weed of plantation crops (Rajkhowa 2005) Setaria palmifolia can be extremely hard to kill, re-sprouting constantly. Strong roots make mechanical removal difficult (Auckland Regional Council 2007). S. palmifolia forms vigorous mono-specific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). The large leaves of this species have the capacity to shade out smaller herbaceous species (PIER). Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). In North Eastern India Setaria palmifolia is one of the most serious weeds in tea plantations ( Dutta 1965) - Potential major impact on quantity of produce (5-20%)	MH	MH
20. Impact quality?	A common and problematic weed of plantation crops (Rajkhowa 2005) S. palmifolia forms vigorous monospecific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). In North Eastern India Setaria palmifolia is one of the most serious weeds in tea plantations ( Dutta 1965) Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). - Major impact on quality of produce (5-20%)	MH	MH
21. Affect land value?	A common and problematic weed of plantation crops (Rajkhowa 2005) S. palmifolia forms vigorous monospecific stands (Space and Flynn 2002) In North Eastern India Setaria palmifolia is one of the most serious weeds in tea plantations (Dutta 1965) Setaria palmifolia can be extremely hard to kill, re-sprouting constantly. Strong roots make mechanical removal difficult. This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). This species displaces forages in pastures and natives in disturbed areas in wetter habitats (PEIR) Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). S. palmifolia is already a problematic weed in several countries (India, USA-Hawaii, and Samoa). The potential for it to grow in dense clumps, and exclude other species could have great impacts on value of agricultural land. - Major significance >10%	H	MH
22. Change land use?	A common and problematic weed of plantation crops (Rajkhowa 2005) This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). In North Eastern India Setaria palmifolia is one of the most serious weeds in tea plantations (Dutta 1965) This species displaces forages in pastures and natives in disturbed areas in wetter habitats (PEIR) Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). S. palmifolia is already a problematic weed in several countries (India, USA-Hawaii, and Samoa). Clumping of the species and the ability to exclude other species could have great impacts on land use. - Downgrading of the priority land use, to one with either less agricultural return	MH	MH
23. Increase harvest costs?	A common and problematic weed of plantation crops (Rajkhowa 2005) In North Eastern India Setaria palmifolia is one of the most serious weeds in tea plantations (Dutta 1965). S. palmifolia forms vigorous mono-specific stands (Space and Flynn 2002). Extremely hard to kill, re-sprouting constantly. Strong roots make mechanical removal difficult. This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). This species displaces forages in pastures and natives in disturbed areas in wetter habitats (PEIR) Setaria palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). S. palmifolia is already a problematic weed in several countries (India, USA-Hawaii, and Samoa). The potential for it to grow in dense clumps, and exclude other species could have great impacts on agriculture and harvesting costs. - Major increase in time or labour, or machinery in harvesting.	H	MH
24. Disease host/vector?	No evidence that S. palmifolia is host/vector to any disease	L	L

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Native of tropical areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). Requires full sun to partial shade (Christman 2003). Tolerant of most conditions and varying light intensity (Auckland Regional Council 2007). - Requires natural seasonal disturbances such as seasonal rainfall, spring/summer temperatures for germination	MH	MH
2. Establishment requirements?	S. palmifolia is a Native of tropical areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). It usually grows in damp, shady areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993) preferring fertile soils, but can grow in sandy soils (REFERENCE). Tolerant of most conditions and varying light intensity (Auckland Regional Council 2007). Establishment of S. palmifolia requires moist conditions and fertile soils, with moderate shade (canopy cover). - Requires more specific requirements to establish (access to light and direct rainfall)	ML	MH
3. How much disturbance is required?	S. palmifolia grows on the edges of ponds and lakes. It commonly grows in damp and shady areas (Jacobs and Hastings 1993). Other habitats for S. palmifolia are disturbed and open forest, shrub-lands, herb fields and bare land (Weed Busters NZ). Palm Grass S. palmifolia is another grass species that spreads along roadsides (Stewart 2008). S. palmifolia is a common and problematic weed of plantation crops (Rajkhowa 2005) S. palmifolia also displaces natives in disturbed areas in mesic to wet forests (Motooka 2003) S. palmifolia is capable of growing in varying conditions of soil type and light intensity. This means that the species has the potential to establish in a variety of habitats of different levels of disturbance. - S. palmifolia can establish in highly disturbed natural ecosystems (roadsides, wildlife corridors, tourist areas, campsites) OR in overgrazed pastures. It can also establish in relatively intact, or only minor disturbed natural ecosystems (riparian, grassland, open woodland etc.).	ML	H
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	Large robust, clump forming grass with leaves up to 75cm long (Auckland Regional Council 2007) to 1.5m high (Jacobs and Hastings 1993) - Grass	MH	H
5. Allelopathic properties?	No evidence of allelopathic properties in this species. - None	MH	L
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	Cows will consume S. palmifolia (Gilmore). S. palmifolia possesses a good forage value (Foury 1953). S. palmifolia displaces forages in pastures and natives in disturbed areas in wetter habitats (PEIR). Setaria palmifolia can be extremely hard to kill, re-sprouting constantly (Auckland Regional Council 2007). S. palmifolia seeds are eaten by Red-Browed Finches in New South Wales (Todd 1996) S. palmifolia will tolerate moderate herbivory pressure, and will be able to continue growth via vegetative expansion. This species is not known to be a primary food source, but evidence suggests that it has a good nutrition value and will be consumed. - Consumed but not preferred. Or consumed and recovers quickly, capable of flowering/seed production under moderate herbivory pressure (Moderate=normal, not overstocking or heavy grazing)	MH	MH
7. Normal growth rate?	In temperate zones it can grow 3-5 feet tall in a single season (Christman 2003). - Rapid growth rate that will exceed most other species of the same life form	H	MH
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	This species can grow anywhere up to approximately 3600m (Zipcode Zoo 2008). Once established is quite drought tolerant, mature plants are cold resistant, but are not tolerant of heavy frosts, and moderate tolerance to salt (Weed Busters NZ). S. palmifolia is native to tropical areas, and has become a troublesome weed throughout much of tropical and subtropical Pacific region (indication of tolerance to flooding??) (Christman 2003; Jacobs and Hastings 1993). Tolerant of at least two and susceptible to at least one	Ml	MH
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Propagation via division of the root ball, and from seed (Dave’s Garden ) S. palmifolia reproduces via seed (PIER) This species is able to reproduce by both vegetative and sexual methods	H	MH
10. Number of propagules produced?	Unknown	MH	L
11. Propagule longevity?	Unknown	MH	L
12. Reproductive period?	Perennial grass (Clayton et al) This species forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Auckland Regional Council 2007). S. palmifolia has the capability to form dense self sustaining monocultures	H	MH
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	S. palmifolia is a perennial grass that forms pure colonies, where the dense rhizome mass excludes all other vegetation (Clayton et al.; ARC 2007). Reaches maturity and produces viable propagules AND vegetative propagules become separate individuals within 1-2 years.	H	MH
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	S. palmifolia is a grass species that can be spread when seeds are picked up by roadside slashers (Stewart 2008) Seeds dispersed by wind and animals, especially birds (Space and Flynn 2002; PIER) Spread is occasionally aided by water movement (Weed Busters New Zealand) S. palmifolia seeds are dispersed by several methods. Including wind, water, attachments to human and animals or vehicles, as well as accidental human dispersal.	MH	H
15. How far do they disperse?	Seeds dispersed by wind and animals (Space and Flynn 2002) Palm Grass S. palmifolia is a grass species that can be spread when seeds are picked up by roadside slashers (Stewart 2008) Due to the fact that Setaria palmifolia seeds can be spread by wind, animals and machinery, it is likely that seeds will be dispersed greater than one kilometre distance from the plant	H	H

References

Bruegmann M, Zablan M (2006) Five year review of Clermontia peleana US Fish and Wildlife Service

Christman S (2003) Setaria palmifolia, available at www.floridata.com/ref/S/seta_pal.cfm (verified on 01 December 2008)

Clayton WD, Harman KT and Williamson H. (2002 onwards). World Grass Species: Descriptions, Identification, and Information Retrieval. http://www.kew.org/data/grassesdb.html. (verified 05 December 2008)

Foury A What is the forage value of the genus Setaria?

Gilmore S () Weed Control for Organic Farms Tweed Richmond Organic Growers Association, available at http://www.tweedrichmond.organicproducers.org.au/library/pestmgmt/weedcont.htm (verified 05 December 2008)

Jacobs SW and Hastings SM (1993) Setaria palmifolia (J. Koenig) Stapf, available at http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgibin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Setaria~palmifolia (verified on 27 November 2008)

Motooka P, Castro L, Nelson D, Nagai G, Ching L (2003) Weeds of Hawaii’s pasture and Natural Areas; AN identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. University of Hawaii, Manoa

Palm Grass, Setaria palmifolia from Auckland Regional Council website, available at http://www.arc.govt.nz/environment/plants-and-animals/search-forplants/index.cfm?63E0F20E-14C2-3D2D-B905-50098EBBE4B9&plantcode=Setpal (verified on 05 December 2008)

Rajkhowa DJ, Barua C, Bhuyan RP and Yaduraju NT (2005) Weed Management In Tea NRC for Weed Science, Jabalpur

Setaria palmifolia from Dave’s Garden, available at http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/71106/ (verified on 01 December 2008)

Smith CW (1985) Impacts of Alien Plants on Hawaii’s Native Biota. In Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk, available at http://www.hear.org/pier/species/Setaria_palmifolia.htm (verified 05 December 2008)

Space C, Flynn (2002) Report to the Government of Samoa on Invasive Species of Concern. United States Department of Agriculture.

Todd MK (1996) Diet and Foraging Behaviour of Red-Browed Finches Neochmia temporalis Near Newcastle, New South Wales. Emu 96, 245-249

Weed Busters New Zealand, available at www.weedbusters.co.nz/weed_info/detail.asp?WeedID+32 (verified on 01 December 2008)

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2008) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified on 01 December 2008)

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI) http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified on 01 December 2008)

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2008) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified on 01 December 2008)

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. (2008) Available at http://www.itis.gov/ (verified on 01 December 2008)

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2008) w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database, Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (verified on 01 December 2008)

National Biodiversity Network (2004) NBN Gateway, National Biodiversity Network, UK, Available at http://www.searchnbn.net/index_homepage/index.jsp (verified on 01 December 2008)

Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne. (2003) Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria. Available at http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/research_and_conservation/plant_information/viclist (verified on 01 December 2008)

USDA,ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database].

National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?33832 (verified 09 December 2008)

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