Hybrid mother of millions (Bryophyllum daigremontianum x B. delagoense)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Bryophyllum daigremontianum x B. delagoense
Common name(s):	hybrid mother of millions

This weed is not known to be naturalised in Victoria

Habitat:

B. delagoense (on of the parent plants) prefers sub-humid climate or semi arid climate. “Dry skeletal soils or rock faces, shallow stony soils in open forest country or loose sand near the seashore… Maybe found on a broad range of soils, from sand to heavy clay, where surface organic matter occurs… B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’…open eucalypt forests, Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) woodlands or Casuarina communities… Plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes…Rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover… Appears to be frost intolerant… Bryophyllum daigremontianum, in its native range, [is in] a subarid region, which has an average annual rainfall of 350mm, falling irregularly as occasional rains. This region has a mean annual temperature of about 26°C with maximum temperatures to around 40°C…CLIMEX® indicates a potential for utilization of the drier areas of inland Australia. The hybrid, B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense could be expected to have a climatic requirement within the range of requirements of its parent species” Plantlets and seed may be spread “along watercourses, especially during periods of flooding ( (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Broadacre cropping; forestry; horticulture perennial; horticulture seasonal; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation; water

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; swampy scrub; freshwater wetland (permanent); treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; damp forest; riparian; wet forest; rainforest; high altitude shrubland/woodland; high altitude wetland; alpine treeless; granitic hillslopes; rocky outcrop
shrubland; western plains woodland; basalt grassland; alluvial plains grassland; semi-arid woodland; alluvial plains woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest; freshwater wetland (ephemeral); saline wetland; chenopod shrubland; chenopod mallee; hummock-grass mallee; lowan mallee; broombush whipstick

Colours indicate possibility of Bryophyllum daigremontianum x B. delagoense infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense. Erect succulent herb; stems stiff, 30-60cm tall, occasionally taller…“Bryophyllum…refers to the ability of plants to form epiphyllous buds along leaf margins. These buds drop to the ground and form a mat of plantlets” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Dense populations may make access difficult as eye sight of the terrain may be hindered. High nuisance value. People and vehicles access with difficulty.	MH	M
2. Reduce tourism?	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense. Erect succulent herb; stems stiff, 30-60cm tall, occasionally taller…Inflorescences terminal. Flowers orange-red, 2-3cm long…“Bryophyllum…refers to the ability of plants to form epiphyllous buds along leaf margins. These buds drop to the ground and form a mat of plantlets” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Minor effects to aesthetics and recreational uses (i.e. aware but not bothered or activity inhibited).	ML	M
3. Injurious to people?	“Bryophyllum species are toxic to species other than cattle…There was a case of severe diarrhoea in a child who ate flowers of B. delagoense” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Effects of this nature are considered to be extremely toxic and cause serious allergy for the purpose of this assessment.	H	MH
4. Damage to cultural sites?	B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense. Erect succulent herb; stems stiff, 30-60cm tall, occasionally taller…Inflorescences terminal. Flowers orange-red, 2-3cm long…“Bryophyllum…refers to the ability of plants to form epiphyllous buds along leaf margins. These buds drop to the ground and form a mat of plantlets” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “Being unwanted garden plants B. delagoense was dumped “the result being infestations can be found… [At] old homestead sites” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee 2003). Moderate visual effect at least, not enough is know about root system to indicate whether it could cause structural damage.	ML	M
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	B. delagoense (on of the parent plants) “Dry skeletal soils or rock faces, shallow stony soils in open forest country or loose sand near the seashore… May be found on a broad range of soils, from sand to heavy clay, where surface organic matter occurs… B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’…open eucalypt forests, Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) woodlands or Casuarina communities… Plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes… Bryophyllum daigremontianum, in its native range, [is in] a subarid region…CLIMEX® indicates a potential for utilization of the drier areas of inland Australia. The hybrid, B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense could be expected to have a climatic requirement within the range of requirements of its parent species” Plantlets and seed may be spread “along watercourses, especially during periods of flooding (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Not described as aquatic.	L	MH
6. Impact water quality?	B. delagoense (on of the parent plants) “Dry skeletal soils or rock faces, shallow stony soils in open forest country or loose sand near the seashore… May be found on a broad range of soils, from sand to heavy clay, where surface organic matter occurs… B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’…open eucalypt forests, Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) woodlands or Casuarina communities… Plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes… Bryophyllum daigremontianum, in its native range, [is in] a subarid region…CLIMEX® indicates a potential for utilization of the drier areas of inland Australia. The hybrid, B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense could be expected to have a climatic requirement within the range of requirements of its parent species” Plantlets and seed may be spread “along watercourses, especially during periods of flooding (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Not described as aquatic.	L	MH
7. Increase soil erosion?	“Form[s] a mat of plantlets…Few plants growing in open bare areas… The parent plant dies back post flowering” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). With such a mass die back of a mat forming plant, there is a moderate probability of large scale soil movement.	ML	ML
8. Reduce biomass?	B. delagoense is found in “open forest country or loose sand near the seashore… B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’…open eucalypt forests, Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) woodlands or Casuarina communities… Plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes…Rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). It is unknown what sort of vegetation type or particular species is affected in Victoria therefore effects to the biomass are unknown.	M	L
9. Change fire regime?	B. delagoense is found in “open forest country or loose sand near the seashore… B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’…open eucalypt forests, Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) woodlands or Casuarina communities… Plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes…Rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). It is unknown what sort of vegetation type or particular species in Victoria is affected therefore effects to fire regime are unknown.	M	L
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	Climate modelling indicates that this species is unlikely to occur in Victoria.	L	H
(b) medium value EVC	Climate modelling indicates that this species is unlikely to occur in Victoria.	L	H
(c) low value EVC	Climate modelling indicates that this species is unlikely to occur in Victoria.	L	H
11. Impact on structure?	“Hybrid, Bryophyllum x houghtonii syn. B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense…is increasing over substantial areas” (DEEDI 2009). “Bryophyllum…refers to the ability of plants to form epiphyllous buds along leaf margins. These buds drop to the ground and form a mat of plantlets” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum tubiflorum [= delagoense]” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). B. delagoense could cause “a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee 2003). B. delagoense is “a highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). According to this information there will be changes in the vegetation community by parent plant B. delagoense, which may also be exhibited by the hybrid, but it is unknown to what exact degree.	M	L
12. Effect on threatened flora?	“Hybrid, Bryophyllum x houghtonii syn. B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense…is increasing over substantial areas” (DEEDI 2009). “At Mungle Creek, New South Wales, dense infestations of B. delagoense that originated from a garden planting, about two kilometres upstream, now interfere with regeneration of southern remnant stands of Acacia harpophylla in a flora reserve”. Control by cultivation “would not be of use in areas where…environmental values such as biodiversity, soil conservation and down catchment water quality are of concern. This is particularly the case in Queensland Brigalow, which is and endangered ecosystem” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). This hybrid may pose a similar threat as parent plant B. delagoense infestations, which could be of concern to Victoria’s threatened flora from this information but more information is needed.	MH	L
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	“Hybrid, Bryophyllum x houghtonii syn. B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense…is increasing over substantial areas” (DEEDI 2009). “B. delagoense is of concern for its competition with native herbs and forbs which are the diet of the endangered macropod, bridled nail-tailed wallaby Onychogalea fraenata” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee 2003). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). This hybrid may pose a similar threat as parent plant B. delagoense infestations, which could be of concern to Victoria’s threatened fauna from this information but more information is needed.	MH	L
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	“Hybrid, Bryophyllum x houghtonii syn. B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense…is increasing over substantial areas” (DEEDI 2009). “B. delagoense is of concern for its competition with native herbs and forbs which are the diet of the endangered macropod, bridled nail-tailed wallaby Onychogalea fraenata” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee 2003). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). This hybrid may pose a similar threat as parent plant B. delagoense whose infestations exclude native vegetation. This may lead to a reduction in food source as well as a reduction in habitat for fauna.	MH	ML
15. Benefits fauna?	“In Madagascar, Nectarinia sp. (Nectariniidae) (sunbird) has been observed visiting the flowers of B. delagoense. However, in Australia, honeybees Apis mellifera have been observed entering the corolla tube of B. delagoense flowers and emerging covered with pollen” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). The hybrid may be similar to one of its parent plants B. delagoense and could provide some assistance as a food source for native fauna.	MH	ML
16. Injurious to fauna?	“B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense, B. pinnatum and B. proliferum caused 41 recorded poisoning incidents affecting 379 cattle” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Parent plant B. delagoense is “toxic (cardiac glycosides) to animals both domestic and native” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee 2003). Toxic.	H	MH
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	“In Madagascar, Nectarinia sp. (Nectariniidae) (sunbird) has been observed visiting the flowers of B. delagoense. However, in Australia, honeybees Apis mellifera have been observed entering the corolla tube of B. delagoense flowers and emerging covered with pollen” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). The hybrid may be similar to one of its parent plants B. delagoense and could provide a minimal food source for some minor pest species.	ML	ML
18. Provides harbor?	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense. Erect succulent herb; stems stiff, 30-60cm tall, occasionally taller, stems and leaves mottled. Leaves simple, petioles succulent, sub cylindrical, 1-2.5cm long; blades folded” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Given the dimensions and habit of the plant it is unlikely that it could provide harbour for animals.	L	MH
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	After consuming B. delagoense flowers, within “the next 20 days 122 deaths [of approximately 775 weaner cattle] occurred… B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense, B. pinnatum and B. proliferum caused 41 recorded poisoning incidents affecting 379 cattle (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense could potentially cause as many poisonings as B. delagoense. Approximately 122= 15.75% of 775 weaners is considered a major impact on the quantity of produce.	MH	MH
20. Impact quality?	Although there is evidence that B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense is toxic to livestock and can result in death, no information was found to suggest that if livestock survived a poisoning episode, that the quality of product would be affected.	M	L
21. Affect land value?	“Dead plants are still toxic and still present a poisoning risk to livestock if eaten” (DPI NSW 2005). “After consuming B. delagoense flowers, in “the next 20 days 122 deaths [of approximately 775 weaner cattle] occurred… Treatment can be more expensive than most poisoned animals are worth…Chinchilla Shire Council have spent an average of $27,000 (1998 dollars) per year for the last 5 years on the control of B. delagoense and the hybrid. This equates to about $180 ha^-1, comprising initial control and subsequent follow up” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Given that B. delagoense is costly to control and contributes to the loss of livestock, it could be a major contributing factor in lowering land value.	H	M
22. Change land use?	“Bryophyllum infestations once cultivated and planted to crops, lawns or pastures are no longer a problem. Such a strategy may be useful if the infested area is to be put back into grazing or crop production” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Land may be down graded in the priority of land use to one with less agricultural return.	MH	M
23. Increase harvest costs?	Bryophyllum delagoense and the hybrid “were declared in 1999 in Queensland under the Rural Lands Protection Act (1985)…The costs of compliance, to the community and various levels of government, resulting from this declaration were estimated to be in excess of $5000000 per year…After consuming B. delagoense flowers, within “the next 20 days 122 deaths [of approximately 775 weaner cattle] occurred… B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense, B. pinnatum and B. proliferum caused 41 recorded poisoning incidents affecting 379 cattle… Treatment can be more expensive than most poisoned animals are worth…Chinchilla Shire Council have spent an average of $27,000 (1998 dollars) per year for the last 5 years on the control of B. delagoense and the hybrid. This equates to about $180ha^-1, comprising initial control and subsequent follow up” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “The treatment is costly: for one adult cow, $70 or more, plus veterinary fees” (Land Protection, DPI QLD 2008). Costs incurred because of B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense can include the death of stock, treatment of poisoned stock and control of the infestations on a property. This could become a major increase in labour costs etc, when dealing with poisoned animals and controlling infestations.	H	MH
24. Disease host/vector?	“Plant species up on which S. aurantii were positively identified- B. daigremontianum (Raym.-Hamet &Perrier) Berger x B. delagoense (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Schinz. (mother of millions)…More significantly, S. aurantii causes blemishes and scars on fruit that decreases their grade and value…Discovery and persistence of S. aurantii in Australia is of concern for the citrus industry as S. aurantii could have a major impact on the cost of producing high quality, unblemished fruit and major implications for export markets…The results, thought preliminary, provide some evidence that the population of S. aurantii found in Australia does not survive on citrus and mango…However, this does not mean that S. aurantii found in Australia could not survive on plants other than B. delagoense [one of the parent plants to the hybrid] under different environmental conditions… Additional research must be conducted to test conclusively whether citrus and mango. However, these results do provide some evidence that S. aurantii found in Australia will not attack mango this trial. It also leads one to question the taxa S. aurantii; are the differences in host ranges between Australian and South African S. aurantii due to cryptic species or host races” (Manners and Dhileepan 2005). More research is needed to establish the ability of this plant as a host.	M	L

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	“In Madagascar, B. delagoense is more commonly found in the drier southern region… As the parent plant dies back post flowering it also releases a rain of seed that can germinate under suitable, albeit unknown, conditions” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Unknown germination requirements of parent plant B. delagoense. No information found for the hybrid or other parent plant, B. daigremontianum.	M	L
2. Establishment requirements?	One of the parent plants “Bryophyllum delagoense is not known to suppress good pasture in open situations in Australia but herbaceous species in shady situations may be at risk. Grasses under shade can also be suppressed” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Indicated that the hybrid may tolerate establishment under moderate canopy/litter cover.	MH	ML
3. How much disturbance is required?	“B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’…open eucalypt forests, brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) Woodlands or Casuarinas communities… Cattle trodden or uprooted Bryophyllum spp. exhibits a gravitropic response and reorientate to the vertical… To best suppress Bryophyllum spp., it is essential to maintain strong pasture competition…A reduction in stocking rate can lead to stronger grass production and suppression of Bryophylumm spp.” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Establishes in relatively intact or only minor disturbed natural ecosystems (e.g. open woodlands) or in well established pastures.	MH	MH
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense [is an] erect, succulent herb” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Other.	L	MH
5. Allelopathic properties?	“Bryophyllum delagoense is not known to suppress good pasture in open situations in Australia but herbaceous species in shady situations may be at risk. Grasses under shade can also be suppressed” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). As Bryophyllum delagoense is a parent plant to this hybrid it is also likely to demonstrate similar allelopathic properties.	MH	H
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	“Cattle trodden or uprooted Bryophyllum spp. exhibits a gravitropic response and reorientate to the vertical… Tannins serve as feeding deterrents and defence compounds against insect herbivores and pathogens, and accumulate preferentially in peripheral tissue to fulfil these functions. Tannin cells in B. delagoense and B. daigremontianum are located in the second sub-epidermal layer… Leaves of both B. daigremontianum and B. delagoense were not eaten by starved desert locusts Schistocera gregaria Forskal. Acetone extracts of both of these species yielded an antifeedant, which could inhibit the feeding of S. gregaria…Cattle have generally been poisoned when they have been placed under unusual or stressful conditions…Less frequently, being crowded into infested parts of paddocks by floods, or cold weather, or running out of available feed in drought has caused cattle to eat lethal amounts of this plant…To best suppress Bryophyllum spp., it is essential to maintain strong pasture competition…A reduction in stocking rate can lead to stronger grass production and suppression of Bryophylumm spp.” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Surveys for potential biocontrol agents for mother-of-millions [B. delagoense] began in 2000…Insect colonies are maintained in quarantine” (DEEDI 2009).Four insects have been imported into Australia for testing as biological control agents for mother of millions…Approval for the field release of this agent has been delayed” (State of NSW 2005). Favoured by heavy grazing pressure as not eaten unless under stressful conditions, and not under a biological control program in Australia/New Zealand.	H	M
7. Normal growth rate?	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense. Erect succulent herb; stems stiff, 30-60cm tall, occasionally taller… B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum and the hybrid can be bi- or triennials depending on the season of establishment and environmental and intra-specific effects” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). As this plant can grow to 3m in no more than 3 years, it is assumed it is a fast grower for its life form.	H	MH
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	“Popular pot and garden plants in Australia because of their…drought tolerance…B. delagoense appear to be frost intolerant in Australia. In frost prone areas, the main infestations are limited to protected areas under tree canopies…All Bryophyllum spp. utilise crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) that is a unique ecophysiological adaptation to arid or otherwise water stressed environments…The success of Bryophyllum spp. in Australia appears to be due in part to their ability to withstand drought…Bryophyllum delagoense leaves that are affected by drought at an immature stage develop an enhanced resistance to water loss…Infestations and the accompanying debris can be burned after fencing of from grazing or removing stock to obtain sufficient fuel loads, grading firebreaks and obtaining required permits” Bryophyllum spp. are listed as one “of the twelve most invasive ornamental plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes…In laboratory experiments B.delagoense was much more sensitive to drought than B. daigremontianum, which corresponds to their distributions in Madagascar, where B. daigremontianum is found in the drier south-west and B. delagoense in the areas of higher rainfall” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). As a fore dune plant it can tolerate occasional flooding by sea water. Highly tolerant to drought, not tolerant to frost or fire. Tolerant of two and susceptible to one or more.	ML	M
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense form epiphyllous buds in the indentations along the leaf edges. B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense forms vegetative buds on the inflorescences more readily than does x B. delagoense… Seed production is prolific in all species except the hybrid” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Both vegetative and sexual reproduction.	H	MH
10. Number of propagules produced?	“B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense form epiphyllous buds in the indentations along the leaf edges. B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense forms vegetative buds on the inflorescences more readily than does x B. delagoense… Seed production is prolific in all species except the hybrid… A single plant of B. delagoense [is] capable of producing up to 20 000 seeds from its inflorescence” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “Virtually no seed is produced” (Groves et al. 2005). Need more specific information about the hybrid.	M	L
11. Propagule longevity?	Cumulative germination of freshly collected B. delagoense seed was studied for germination rates by Hannan-Jones and Playford (2002) with results indicating that more than half of seeds had germinated within six months. “B. daigremontianum x B. delagoense form epiphyllous buds in the indentations along the leaf edges” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). This information indicates that most seeds will have germinated within five years and this is likely true of the hybrid too. Less than 25% of seeds survive 5 years or produces vegetatively.	L	M
12. Reproductive period?	“Many Bryophyllum spp. are semelparous biennials or triennials. Semelparity is a distinct life history where a single sexual reproductive event is followed by plant death. B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum and the hybrid can be bi- or triennials depending on the season of establishment and environmental and intra-specific effects” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). B. delagoense is noted as “reproducing rapidly by vegetative offsets at the leaf tips” (AGIS 2008). Considering this species only lives for three years at most and reproduces rapidly, it is assumed that it reproduces for three years in worst case scenario.	MH	ML
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	“Many Bryophyllum spp. are semelparous biennials or triennials. Semelparity is a distinct life history where a single sexual reproductive event is followed by plant death. B. delagoense, B.daigremontianum and the hybrid can be bi- or triennials depending on the season of establishment and environmental and intra-specific effects” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). B. delagoense is noted as “reproducing rapidly by vegetative offsets at the leaf tips” (AGIS 2008). Considering B. delagoense, B.daigremontianum and the hybrid only lives for three years at most and B. delagoense reproduces rapidly, it is assumed that the hybrid could reproduce separate vegetative individuals in less than one year.	H	M
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	“Plantlets and seeds may be spread short distances by rain-wash, with further movement along water courses, especially during periods of flooding. The minute seeds adhering to fur or feathers of passing animals and birds may also aid the spread” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Hybrid mother of millions is “spread by plantlets carried by water in streams and rivers and by plantlets attached to animals and in mud also in dumped garden waste” (Groves et al. 2005). Bird dispersed seed.	H	MH
15. How far do they disperse?	“Plantlets and seeds may be spread short distances by rain-wash, with further movement along water courses, especially during periods of flooding. The minute seeds adhering to fur or feathers of passing animals and birds may also aid the spread” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Hybrid mother of millions is “spread by plantlets carried by water in streams and rivers and by plantlets attached to animals and in mud also in dumped garden waste” (Groves et al. 2005). Very likely that at least one propagule will disperse greater than one kilometre.	H	MH

References

AGIS (2007) Agricultural Geo-Referenced Information System, Available at www.agis.agric.za (verified 24/11/2008)

Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation. (DEEDI) (2009) Biological control of mother-of-millions. Available at:
http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/dpi/hs.xsl/4790_13772_ENA_HTML.htm (verified 10/11/2009).

Department of Primary Industries, New South Wales (2005) Primefacts: Mother of millions. Available at
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/44727/Mother_of_millions_-_Primefact_45-final.pdf (verified 18/11/2008)

Hannan-Jones MA & Playford J (2002) The biology of Australian weeds 40. Bryophyllum Salisb. species. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 42-57.

Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003) Regional weed management plan to control mother of millions (Bryophyllum delagoense) in the Hunter and Central Coast. Available at http://www.portstephens.nsw.gov.au/files/1342/File/rwmp%20mom%20version1final.pdf (verified on 18/11/08)

Land Protection, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland (DPI QLD) (2008) Fact sheet: Mother-of-millions. Available at
http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mother-Millions-PP33.pdf (verified 18/11/2008)

Manners A.G and Dhileepan (2005) Australian Scirtothrips aurantii Faure (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) only survived on mother-of-millions (Bryophyllum delagoense) in a no-choice trial. Plant Protection Quarterly 20:1, 33-35.

Pittwater council (2008) Mother of millions. Available at http://www.pittwater.nsw.gov.au/environment/noxious_weeds/herbs/mother_of_millions (verified 18/11/2008)

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2009) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 26 December 2009).

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI) http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified 26 December 2009).

Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) (2006) Flora information system [CD-ROM], Biodiversity and Natural Resources Section, Viridans Pty Ltd, Bentleigh.

EIS: Environmental Information System (2006) Parks Victoria.

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2009) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 26 December 2009).

IPMS: Integrated Pest Management System (2006) Department of Primary Industries.

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. (2009) Available at http://www.itis.gov/ (verified 26 December 2009).

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2009) w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database, Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (verified 26 December 2009).

National Biodiversity Network (2004) NBN Gateway, National Biodiversity Network, UK, Available at http://www.searchnbn.net/index_homepage/index.jsp (verified 26 December 2009).

Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne. (2009 Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria. Available at http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/research_and_conservation/plant_information/viclist (verified 26 December 2009).

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