Bromus (Bromus inermis)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Bromus inermis Leyss.
Common name(s):	bromus

Map showing the present distribution of this weed.

Habitat:

“Forestry: In British Columbia, height and biomass of logepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) seedlings established from a mix of lodgepole pine seed and smooth brome and other grass seed were less than height and biomass of lodgepole pine seedlings established from lodgepole pine seed sown alone… It is common in riparian zones, valley bottoms, and dryland sites. It is adapted to all soil textures…Eleven inches (280mm) of
annual precipitation is the minimum that will support smooth brome without irrigation” (Howard 1996). “Habitats include pastures, fallow fields, [and] degraded meadows” (Hilty 2010). “Can tolerate spring flooding conditions…Can escape to forests, prairies, fields, lawns, roadsides, railway right-of-ways, and lightly disturbed areas” (NDDoA 2005). “B. inermis is not tolerant of anaerobic [or] calcareous…Not shade tolerant” (ISSG 2008).
“Fairly resistant to saline soils… Smooth brome seed sown in late fall to early winter in central Utah germinated and produced roots and shoots under deep snow cover” (Howard 1996). “It is drought resistant” (Cook 1943).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Broadacre cropping; forestry; horticulture perennial; horticulture seasonal; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; freshwater wetland (permanent); treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; forby forest; damp forest; riparian; wet forest; high altitude shrubland/woodland; high altitude wetland; alpine treeless; granitic hillslopes; alluvial plains woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest;
freshwater wetland (ephemeral); saline wetland;

Colours indicate possibility of Bromus inermis infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of bromus inermis

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	“Culms to 1.2m tall” (Mohlenbrock 1973). In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “B. inermis is also known to significantly impact the population dynamics and movement behaviour of several native arthropod species in North American prairies” (ISSG 2008). “It is common in riparian zones” (Howard 1996). High nuisance value. People and/or vehicles access with difficulty.	MH	M
2. Reduce tourism?	“Culms to 1.2m tall” (Mohlenbrock 1973). In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “B. inermis is also known to significantly impact the population dynamics and movement behaviour of several native arthropod species in North American prairies” (ISSG 2008). “It is common in riparian zones” (Howard 1996). Minor effects to aesthetics and/or recreational uses (i.e. aware but not bothered or activity inhibited).	ML	M
3. Injurious to people?	“Pollen is disseminated by wind. Each panicle usually produces abundant seed and is highly cross-fertilizing, naturally cross-pollinated” (Brady 1980). “Flowering B. inermis had florets opened widely … [and] anthers dangled in the wind free from the floret … Often, a large proportion of the florets of a B. inermis shoot were open synchronously” (McKone 1985). “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site” (Grilz and Romo 1994). Spines, burrs or toxic properties at most times of the year, or may be a major component in allergies, hayfever and/or asthma.	MH	M
4. Damage to cultural sites?	“Culms to 1.2m tall” (Mohlenbrock 1973). “It is clear that the brome grass remains erect during the winter” (Van der kamp et al 1999). “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site” (Grilz and Romo 1994). Moderate visual effect.	ML	M
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	“The long-term water level presented in this paper show conclusively that when the catchments of small prairie wetlands were converted from cultivated land to undisturbed brome grass the wetlands dried out and remained dry, even in years of heavy precipitation. The reasons for this change of hydrology are not yet established. It is likely that brome grass, with its tall stiff stems, is particularly effective in reducing soil moisture, trapping snow on catchment slopes and inducing infiltration of snowmelt moisture” (Van der kamp et al. 1999). “It is recommended for erosion control and streambank and stream bottom stabilisation” (Howard 1996). Major impact on either surface or subsurface flow (eg. major root obstructions, submergent aquatics).	MH	M
6. Impact water quality?	Smooth brome has a lack of litter build up (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Culms to 1.2m tall” (Mohlenbrock 1973). Unlikely to cause eutrophication. No noticeable effect on dissolved 0₂or light levels.	L	M
7. Increase soil erosion?	“It is recommended for erosion control and streambank and stream bottom stabilisation” (Howard 1996). Low probability of large scale soil movement; or decreases the probability of soil erosion.	L	M
8. Reduce biomass?	“Over the past 30 years, the C₃ non-native plant Bromus inermis (smooth brome) has been spreading throughout the central grasslands in North America” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site and suppressing other plants … In a mixed prairie in Manitoba, B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). Information indicates that it replaces other grasses. Direct replacement of biomass by invader.	ML	M
9. Change fire regime?	“However, in the case of smooth brome, both its C₃ pathway (conferring a high proportion of green and therefore less flammable tissue during most of the year) and its lack of litter build up make stands less likely to burn” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). Greatly changes the frequency and/or intensity of fire risk.	H	MH
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Riparian Woodland (E); CMA = Corangamite; Bioregion = Victorian Volcanic Plain; VH CLIMATE potential. “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site and suppressing other plants … In a mixed prairie in Manitoba, B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “Over the past 30 years, the C₃ non-native plant Bromus inermis (smooth brome) has been spreading throughout the central grasslands in North America. Invasion by this grass has resulted in the local displacement of natives … In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Forming a dense sod that reduces biodiversity” (NDDoA 2005). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction” (ISSG 2008). Major displacement of some dominant species within a strata/layer (or some dominant species within different layers).	MH	MH
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Riverine Chenopod Woodland (D); CMA = Murray; Bioregion = Murray Mallee; VH CLIMATE potential. “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site and suppressing other plants…In a mixed prairie in Manitoba, B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “Over the past 30 years, the C₃ non-native plant Bromus inermis (smooth brome) has been spreading throughout the central grasslands in North America. Invasion by this grass has resulted in the local displacement of natives … In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Forming a dense sod that reduces biodiversity” (NDDoA 2005). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction” (ISSG 2008). Major displacement of some dominant species within a strata/layer (or some dominant species within different layers).	MH	MH
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Herb-rich Foothill Forest (LC); CMA = North East; Bioregion = Northern Inland Slopes; VH CLIMATE potential. “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site and suppressing other plants … In a mixed prairie in Manitoba, B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “Over the past 30 years, the C₃ non-native plant Bromus inermis (smooth brome) has been spreading throughout the central grasslands in North America. Invasion by this grass has resulted in the local displacement of natives … In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Forming a dense sod that reduces biodiversity” (NDDoA 2005). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction” (ISSG 2008). Major displacement of some dominant species within a strata/layer (or some dominant species within different layers).	MH	MH
11. Impact on structure?	“It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site and suppressing other plants … In a mixed prairie in Manitoba, B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “Over the past 30 years, the C₃ non-native plant Bromus inermis (smooth brome) has been spreading throughout the central grasslands in North America. Invasion by this grass has resulted in the local displacement of natives … In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Forming a dense sod that reduces biodiversity” (NDDoA 2005). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction” (ISSG 2008). Minor effect on >60% of the layers or major effect on < 60% of the floral strata.	MH	MH
12. Effect on threatened flora?	“It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction” in North American (ISSG 2008). “The long-term water level presented in this paper show conclusively that when the catchments of small prairie wetlands were converted from cultivated land to undisturbed brome grass the wetlands dried out and remained dry, even in years of heavy precipitation. The reasons for this change of hydrology are not yet established. It is likely that brome grass, with its tall stiff stems, is particularly effective in reducing soil moisture, trapping snow on catchment slopes and inducing infiltration of snowmelt moisture” (Van der kamp et al. 1999). Bromus inermis may impact on VROT species, particularly those in wetlands, but not enough information was found.	MH	ML
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Litoria raniformis, a frog listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (DSE 2010), “lives in permanent water bodies that have lots of vegetation such as ponds, swamps, lagoons and dams” A processes suspected of threatening Litoria raniformis is “habitat modification (e.g. vegetation clearing, invasive weeds)” (FAN 2005). “The long-term water level presented in this paper show conclusively that when the catchments of small prairie wetlands were converted from cultivated land to undisturbed brome grass the wetlands dried out and remained dry, even in years of heavy precipitation. The reasons for this change of hydrology are not yet established. It is likely that brome grass, with its tall stiff stems, is particularly effective in reducing soil moisture, trapping snow on catchment slopes and inducing infiltration of snowmelt moisture” (Van der kamp et al. 1999). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction. B. inermis is also known to significantly impact the population dynamics and movement behaviour of several native arthropod species in North American prairies” (ISSG 2008). Habitat may be changed dramatically, leading to the possible extinction (extirpation) of a VROT or Bioregional Priority species.	H	M
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	“The long-term water level presented in this paper show conclusively that when the catchments of small prairie wetlands were converted from cultivated land to undisturbed brome grass the wetlands dried out and remained dry, even in years of heavy precipitation. The reasons for this change of hydrology are not yet established. It is likely that brome grass, with its tall stiff stems, is particularly effective in reducing soil moisture, trapping snow on catchment slopes and inducing infiltration of snowmelt moisture” (Van der kamp et al. 1999). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction. B. inermis is also known to significantly impact the population dynamics and movement behaviour of several native arthropod species in North American prairies” (ISSG 2008). Habitat changed dramatically, leading to the possible extinction (extirpation) of non-threatened fauna.	H	M
15. Benefits fauna?	Seed dispersed by wind, ants and birds (ISSG 2008). “Geese and small rodents such as pocket gophers also graze smooth brome … Smooth brome provides cover for birds and small mammals. Ducks, gray partridge, American bittern, northern harrier, and short-eared owl use it as nesting cover” (Howard 1996). Provides some assistance in either food or shelter to desirable species.	MH	M
16. Injurious to fauna?	“Unlike other Brome Grasses, the spikelets of Smooth Brome lack awns that can injure the mouthparts and gastrointestinal tract of hoofed herbivores … The seeds of Brome grasses are attractive to upland gamebirds and some sparrows. Their foliage is eaten by rabbits and hoofed herbivores” (Hilty 2010). “Elk use it as a winter food. Mule deer in central Utah were found to use it only lightly ... Geese and small rodents such as pocket gophers also graze smooth brome … Smooth brome’s tolerance to grazing is generally rated as high” (Howard 1996). No effect.	L	ML
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	“Their foliage is eaten by rabbits and hoofed herbivores” (Hilty 2010). Supplies food serious pest (eg. rabbits and foxes), but at low levels (eg. foliage).	MH	ML
18. Provides harbour?	Smooth brome provides cover for birds and small mammals. Ducks, gray partridge, American bittern, northern harrier, and short-eared owl use it as nesting cover” (Howard 1996). The seeds of Brome grasses are attractive to upland gamebirds and some sparrows. Their foliage is eaten by rabbits and hoofed herbivores” (Hilty 2010). “It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “Smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). Capacity to provide harbour and permanent warrens for foxes and rabbits throughout the year.	H	ML
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	“Forestry: In British Columbia, height and biomass of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) seedlings established from a mix of lodgepole pine seed and smooth brome and other grass seed were less than height and biomass of lodgepole pine seedlings established from lodgepole pine seed sown alone” (Howard 1996). “It is tolerant of heavy grazing and is highly palatable both early and late in the growing season” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Pine seedlings may take longer to reach logging size and therefore output could be reduced. Major impact on quantity of produce (eg 5-20%).	MH	M
20. Impact quality?	“Forestry: In British Columbia, height and biomass of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) seedlings established from a mix of lodgepole pine seed and smooth brome and other grass seed were less than height and biomass of lodgepole pine seedlings established from lodgepole pine seed sown alone” (Howard 1996). “It is tolerant of heavy grazing and is highly palatable both early and late in the growing season” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Information indicates no negative impacts on quality. Little or negligible affect on quality of yield.	L	M
21. Affect land value?	“Forestry: In British Columbia, height and biomass of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) seedlings established from a mix of lodgepole pine seed and smooth brome and other grass seed were less than height and biomass of lodgepole pine seedlings established from lodgepole pine seed sown alone” (Howard 1996). “It is tolerant of heavy grazing and is highly palatable both early and late in the growing season” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Little or none.	L	M
22. Change land use?	“Forestry: In British Columbia, height and biomass of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) seedlings established from a mix of lodgepole pine seed and smooth brome and other grass seed were less than height and biomass of lodgepole pine seedlings established from lodgepole pine seed sown alone” (Howard 1996). “It is tolerant of heavy grazing and is highly palatable both early and late in the growing season” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Little or no change.	L	M
23. Increase harvest costs?	“Forestry: In British Columbia, height and biomass of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) seedlings established from a mix of lodgepole pine seed and smooth brome and other grass seed were less than height and biomass of lodgepole pine seedlings established from lodgepole pine seed sown alone” (Howard 1996). “It is tolerant of heavy grazing and is highly palatable both early and late in the growing season” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Little or none.	L	M
24. Disease host/vector?	“An introduced insect from Europe, Athysanus argentarius (Silver Leafhopper), is often found in fields containing Smooth Brome. Other insects that feed on Bromus spp. (Brome Grasses) include Melanoplus femurrubrum (Red-Legged Grasshopper), Mermiria bivittata (Two-striped Slantfaced Grasshopper), Phoetaliotes nebrascensis (Large-Headed Grasshopper), and the moth Leucania multilinea (Many-Lined Wainscot). Provides host to minor (or common) pests, or diseases.	M	ML

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	“Seed requires stratification to germinate … Optimal temperatures for germination in the greenhouse were from 68 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (20-30 deg C). Like all cool-season species, however, smooth brome can germinate at lower temperatures … Seed sown in late fall to early winter in central Utah germinated and produced roots and shoots under deep snow cover. Light enhances germination but is not required” (Howard 1996). “Germination is primarily in early spring, but can occur in the early fall if soil moisture is adequate” (NDDoA 2005). Requires natural seasonal disturbances such as seasonal rainfall, spring/summer temperatures for germination.	MH	M
2. Establishment requirements?	“Smooth brome seed sown in late fall to early winter in central Utah germinated and produced roots and shoots under deep snow cover. Light enhances germination but is not required” (Howard 1996). Can establish without additional factors.	H	M
3. How much disturbance is required?	“It is common in riparian zones, valley bottoms, and dryland sites …On tallgrass prairie, it is usually found in areas with history of overgrazing and/or fire exclusion … Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Establishes in relatively intact or only minor disturbed natural ecosystems (e.g. wetlands, riparian, riverine, grasslands, open woodlands); in vigorously growing crops or in well-established pastures.	MH	M
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	“Bromus inermis (smooth brome) is a cool season perennial Eurasian grass” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). Grass.	MH	MH
5. Allelopathic properties?	“It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes, eventually gaining dominance of the site and suppressing other plants … In a mixed prairie in Manitoba, B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “In addition, smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes, which often form a dense sod with little open space to accommodate colonisation by other species” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “The long-term water level presented in this paper show conclusively that when the catchments of small prairie wetlands were converted from cultivated land to undisturbed brome grass the wetlands dried out and remained dry, even in years of heavy precipitation. The reasons for this change of hydrology are not yet established. It is likely that brome grass, with its tall stiff stems, is particularly effective in reducing soil moisture, trapping snow on catchment slopes and inducing infiltration of snowmelt moisture” (Van der kamp et al. 1999). “It is known to have negative impacts on growth of native plants by slowing their growth and increasing extinction” (ISSG 2008). No mention of allelopathic characteristics. Probably out competes other weeds though competition for water and space i.e. displacement by rhizomes.	L	ML
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	“It is tolerant of heavy grazing and is highly palatable both early and late in the growing season” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). “Smooth brome’s tolerance to grazing is generally rated as high … On tallgrass prairie, it is usually found in areas with history of overgrazing and/or fire exclusion … Severe grazing converted the area to smooth brome, timothy (Phleum pretense), and Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)” (Howard 1996). Favoured by heavy grazing pressure as not eaten by animals/insects and not under a biological control program in Australia/New Zealand.	H	MH
7. Normal growth rate?	“Seedling growth is rapid” (Howard 1996). “B. inermis was the most competitive of several introduced species and excluded native species” (Grilz and Romo 1994). May have rapid growth rate that will exceed most other species of the same life form.	H	M
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	“Fairly resistant to saline soils and drought … It has persisted on old saltgrass (Distichis spicata) meadows with saline soils once the saltgrass was removed … Most smooth brome cultivars are rhizomatous, and survive fire by sprouting from rhizomes … Fire can increase smooth brome productivity … Prescribed fire on the Hillendale Game Farm of central Pennsylvania increased smooth brome production … Smooth brome seed sown in late fall to early winter in central Utah germinated and produced roots and shoots under deep snow cover” (Howard 1996). “It is drought resistant” (Cook 1943). “It is clear that the brome grass remains erect during the winter and acts as a snow trap” (Van der kamp et al 1999). “Can tolerate spring flooding conditions” (NDDoA 2005). Highly resistant to frost, may be highly resistant to drought. Tolerant to salinity, fire and waterlogging.	H	M
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	“It spreads aggressively by seeds and rhizomes” (Grilz and Romo 1994). “Smooth brome is usually cross-pollinated, although it may self-fertilize from different spikelets of the same plant” (Howard 1996). Both vegetative and sexual reproduction (vegetative reproduction may be via cultivation, but not propagation).	H	MH
10. Number of propagules produced?	“A single plant can produce from 50 to over 100,000 seeds that begin to ripen in June and August” (NDDoA 2005). “Smooth brome reproduces both by seedling recruitment and prolific rhizomes” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). Above 2000.	H	M
11. Propagule longevity?	“Seed has remained viable for 22 months to over 14 years. Seed stored in a shed for 19 years showed 20 percent germination” (Howard 1996). Greater than 25% of seeds survive 10-20 years in the soil, or lower viability but survives over 20 years.	MH	M
12. Reproductive period?	“Smooth brome also reproduces through rhizome development that begins between three weeks and six months after germination” (NDDoA 2005). “Bromus inermis (smooth brome) is a cool season perennial Eurasian grass” (Vinton and Goergen 2006). Mature plant produces viable propagules for 3–10 years.	MH	M
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	“Smooth brome also reproduces through rhizome development that begins between three weeks and six months after germination” (NDDoA 2005). Reaches maturity and produces viable propagules, or vegetative propagules become separate individuals, in under a year.	H	M
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Seed dispersed by wind, ants and birds (ISSG 2008). “Geese and small rodents such as pocket gophers also graze smooth brome … Provides cover for birds and small mammals. Ducks, gray partridge, American bittern, northern harrier, and short-eared owl use it as nesting cover” (Howard 1996). Very light, wind dispersed seeds, or bird dispersed seeds, or has edible fruit that is readily eaten by highly mobile animals.	H	M
15. How far do they disperse?	Seed dispersed by wind, ants and birds (ISSG 2008). “Geese and small rodents such as pocket gophers also graze smooth brome … Provides cover for birds and small mammals. Ducks, gray partridge, American bittern, northern harrier, and short-eared owl use it as nesting cover” (Howard 1996). Very likely that at least one propagule will disperse greater one kilometre.	H	M

References

Cook C.W. (1943) “A study of the roots of Bromus inermis in relation to drought resistance.” In: Ecology. 24(2).

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI)
http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified 05/05/2010).

Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) (2010) Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Threatened List 2010. Available at:
http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/nrenpa.nsf/LinkView/EADA0F1874AF9CF24A2567C1001020A388BBA5581CF9D859CA256BB300271BDB (verified
04/06/2010).

Frogs Australia Network (FAN) (2005) Litoria raniformis. Australian Frogs Database. Available at: http://www.frogsaustralia.net.au/frogs/millsap.cfm (verified
04/06/2010).

Grilz P.L. and Romo J.T. (1994) “Water relations and growth of Bromus inermis Leyss (Smooth brome) following spring or autumn burning in a fescue prairie.”
In: The American Midland Naturalist. 132: 340-348.

Hilty J. (2010) Smooth brome. Available at: http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/grasses/plants/smooth brome.htm (verified 31/05/2010).

Howard, J. L. (1996) Bromus inermis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research
Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Available at: http:// www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/broine.all.html (verified 31/05/2010).

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. (2009) Available at http://www.itis.gov/ (verified 05/05/2010).

Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) (2008) Ecology of Bromus inermis. Global invasive species database. Available at:
http://www.invasivespecies.net/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1223&fr=1&sts=&lang=EN (verified 31/05/2010).

McKone M.J. (1985) “Reproductive biology of several brome grasses (Bromus): Breeding system, pattern of fruit maturation, and seed set.” In: American Journal
of Botany. 72(9): 1334-1339.

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2010) w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database. Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html
(verified 05/05/2010 and 04/06/2010).

Mohlenbrock R.H. (1973) The Illustrated Flora of Illinois: Grasses, Bromus to Paspalum. Southern Illinois Uni Press, Illinois.

North Dakota Department of Agriculture. (2005) Smooth Brome. Available at: http://www.agdepartment.com/noxiousweeds/pdf/smoothbrome.pdf (verified
31/05/2010).

Van Der Kamp G, Stolte W.J. and Clark R.G. “Drying out of small wetlands after conversion of their catchments from cultivation to permanent brome grass.” In:
Hydrological Sciences Journal. 44: (3) 387-397.

Vinton M.A. and Goergen E.M. (2006) “Plant-soil feedbacks contribute to the persistence of Bromus inermis in tallgrass prairie.” In: Ecosystems. 9: 967-976.

Walsh N.G. Stajsic V. (2007) A Census of the Vascular Plants of Victoria. 8th Ed. Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne.

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2010) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research. Available at
http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 04/06/2010).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2008) Global biodiversity information facility. Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 05/05/2010).

United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Service, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. Taxonomy Query. (2003) Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxgenform.pl (verified 05/05/2019).

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