Yellow bedstraw (Galium verum)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Galium verum L.
Common name(s):	yellow bedstraw

Map showing the present distribution of this weed.

Habitat:

Can grow in semi-shade or tolerates full sun but does not thrive in a hot climate; requires dry or moist soil; dislike very acid soils; can tolerate maritime exposure (Plants Future 1996–2008). Occurs in dry soils, pastures, old fields, railway lines and roadsides (Darbyshire 2003). Common species of dry banks and sand dunes around the coast of Northern Ireland (Flora of Northern Ireland 2000–2009). Collected at 2940 m in Tibet (Bu 2007). Occurs in ecosystems with saturated to somewhat poorly drained organic and mineral soils (Rolfsmeier and Steinauer 2010). Soil incorporated plant residues of Galium aparine weed may have broad implications for the growth of succeeding wheat crop (Aziz et al. 2008).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Broadacre cropping; forestry; horticulture perennial; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; grassy/heathy dry forest; freshwater wetland (permanent); treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; granitic hillslopes; western plains woodland; semi-arid woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest; freshwater wetland (ephemeral); chenopod shrubland

Colours indicate possibility of Galium verum infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of gallium verum

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	A perennial stoloniferous herb with a slender creeping stock and erect to decumbent, glabrous or sparsely pubescent, stems 15–100 cm, with numerous ascending branches (Clapham et al. 1952). A herbaceous low scrambling, annual plant, with the stems growing to 60-120 cm long, frequently rooting where they touch the ground (NationMaster 2003–2005). Minimal or negligible impact.	L	MH
2. Reduce tourism?	Inflorescence of showy yellow flowers in a large, branched cluster; blooms June-Sept. (Freckmann Herbarium 2010). A perennial stoloniferous herb with a slender creeping stock and erect to decumbent, glabrous or sparsely pubescent, stems 15–100 cm, with numerous ascending branches (Clapham et al. 1952). Weeds not obvious to the average visitor.	L	MH
3. Injurious to people?	Plant parts often glabrous (Moore and Edgar 1970; eFlora Pakistan 2010). A perennial stoloniferous herb with a slender creeping stock (Clapham et al. 1952). No effect, no prickles, no injuries.	L	H
4. Damage to cultural sites?	A herbaceous low scrambling, annual plant, with the stems growing to 60-120 cm long, frequently rooting where they touch the ground (NationMaster 2003–2005). Little or negligible effect on aesthetics or structure of site.	L	MH
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	G. verum listed as a current/potential aquatic nuisance species in Nebraska (Nebraska ISC 2010). Principally a terrestrial species. Little or negligible effect on water flow.	L	L
6. Impact water quality?	G. verum listed as a current/potential aquatic nuisance species in Nebraska (Nebraska ISC 2010). Principally a terrestrial species. Little or negligible effect on water quality.	L	L
7. Increase soil erosion?	Machair coastal habitat in Ireland and Scotland contains typical sand-binding species such as Galium verum (Notice Nature 2007). A sand-dune species (Royo-Esnal et al. 2010). A conspicuous and very common species of dry banks and sand dunes around the coast (Flora of Northern Ireland 2000–2009). Decreases the probability of soil erosion.	L	M
8. Reduce biomass?	A perennial stoloniferous herb with a slender creeping stock and erect to decumbent, glabrous or sparsely pubescent, bluntly 4 angled stems 15–100 cm, with numerous ascending branches (Clapham et al. 1952). A herbaceous low scrambling, annual plant, with the stems growing to 60-120 cm long, frequently rooting where they touch the ground (NationMaster 2003–2005). Direct replacement of biomass by invader.	ML	MH
9. Change fire regime?	A perennial stoloniferous herb; stems 15–100 cm, with numerous ascending branches (Clapham et al. 1952). A herbaceous low scrambling, annual plant, with the stems growing to 60-120 cm long (NationMaster 2003–2005). Small or negligible effect on fire risk.	L	MH
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Ridged Plains Mallee (E); CMA = Mallee; Bioregion = Murray Fans; VH CLIMATE potential. G. verum is low-growing and mixes without harm with any plants at least 60 cm tall… A very invasive plant (Plants Future 1996–2008). Very hardy when established and will tolerate drought conditions; will spread quickly (Cottage Garden 2010). Galium verum is recorded as a potentially problematic invader in herbaceous wetland communities found primarily in grassland environments in Nebraska (Rolfsmeier and Steinauer 2010). Very little displacement of any indigenous species. Sparse/ scattered infestations.	L	MH
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Plains Sedgy Woodland (D); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Dundas Tablelands; VH CLIMATE potential. G. verum is low-growing and mixes without harm with any plants at least 60 cm tall… A very invasive plant (Plants Future 1996–2008). Very hardy when established and will tolerate drought conditions; will spread quickly (Cottage Garden 2010). Galium verum is recorded as a potentially problematic invader in herbaceous wetland communities found primarily in grassland environments in Nebraska (Rolfsmeier and Steinauer 2010). Very little displacement of any indigenous species. Sparse/ scattered infestations.	L	MH
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Shrubby Damp Forest (LC); CMA =East Gippsland; Bioregion = East Gippsland Uplands; VH CLIMATE potential. G. verum is low-growing and mixes without harm with any plants at least 60 cm tall… A very invasive plant (Plants Future 1996–2008). Very hardy when established and will tolerate drought conditions; will spread quickly (Cottage Garden 2010). Galium verum is recorded as a potentially problematic invader in herbaceous wetland communities found primarily in grassland environments in Nebraska (Rolfsmeier and Steinauer 2010). Very little displacement of any indigenous species. Sparse/ scattered infestations.	L	MH
11. Impact on structure?	G. verum is low-growing and mixes without harm with any plants at least 60 cm tall (Plants Future 1996–2008). Minor or negligible effect on <20% of the floral strata/layers present.	L	MH
12. Effect on threatened flora?	A very invasive plant (Plants Future 1996–2008). Very hardy when established and will tolerate drought conditions; will spread quickly (Cottage Garden 2010). Galium verum is recorded as a potentially problematic invader in herbaceous wetland communities found primarily in grassland environments in Nebraska (Rolfsmeier and Steinauer 2010). Otherwise, the impact on threatened flora has not yet been determined.	MH	M
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Impact on threatened fauna has not yet been determined.	MH	L
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	Impact on threatened non-fauna has not yet been determined.	M	L
15. Benefits fauna?	Is a food plant for the larvae of several species of butterflies (Plants Future 1996–2008). Attracts butterflies and hawk moths (Cottage Garden 2010). Provides some assistance in either food or shelter to desirable species.	MH	M
16. Injurious to fauna?	Investigation into this plant indicates that it does not possess any characteristics that are injurious to fauna.	L	L
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	Attracts butterflies and hawk moths (Cottage Garden 2010). Visited by various small insects, especially flies (Clapham et al. 1952). The scented yellow flowers are produced profusely from midsummer onwards (Flora of Northern Ireland 2000–2009). Provides food for one or more minor pest species.	ML	ML
18. Provides harbour?	A perennial stoloniferous herb with a slender creeping stock and erect to decumbent, glabrous or sparsely pubescent stems 15–100 cm, with numerous ascending branches (Clapham et al. 1952). A herbaceous low scrambling plant, with stems growing to 60-120 cm long (NationMaster 2003–2005). Doesn’t provide harbour for serious pest species, but may provide harbour for minor pest species.	ML	ML
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	Soil incorporated plant residues of Galium aparine weed may have broad implications for the growth of succeeding wheat crop (Aziz et al. 2008). A fairly typical species of dense swards in pastures and meadows (Fenner 1978), and pastures (Moore and Edgar 1970; Darbyshire 2003). Minor impact on quantity of produce, i.e. <5% reduction.	ML	L
20. Impact quality?	Potential seed contaminant (USDA GRIN 2010). A frequent constituent of wild-flower seed mixes (Flora of Debyshire 2010). Soil incorporated plant residues of Galium aparine weed may have broad implications for the growth of succeeding wheat crop (Aziz et al. 2008). Minor impact on quality of produce, i.e. <5% reduction.	ML	M
21. Affect land value?	Galium verum occurs on waste ground, roadsides (Plants Future 1996–2008), modified areas near settlements, and rough pasture (Moore and Edgar 1970) and unimproved grassland in the UK, where it has declined locally due to agricultural improvement of grasslands (Flora of Derbyshire 2010). Little or none.	L	ML
22. Change land use?	Galium verum occurs on waste ground, roadsides (Plants Future 1996–2008), modified areas near settlements, and rough pasture (Moore and Edgar 1970) and unimproved grassland in the UK, where it has declined locally due to agricultural improvement of grasslands (Flora of Derbyshire 2010). Little or no change.	L	M
23. Increase harvest costs?	Potential seed contaminant (USDA GRIN 2010). Minor increase in cost of harvesting.	M	MH
24. Disease host/vector?	G. verum is noted for attracting wildlife (Plants Future 1996–2008). Visited by various small insects, especially flies (Clapham et al. 1952). Little or no host.	L	ML

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Seed is best sown in situ as soon as it is ripe in late summer, or can also be sown in situ in the spring though it may be very slow to germinate. Division in spring. The plant can be successfully divided throughout the growing season if the divisions are kept moist until they are established. Very easy, larger clumps can be replanted (Plants Future 1996–2008). Germination of the sand-dune species Galium verum becomes highly sensitive to water potential between 21.0 and 21.5 MPa (Royo-Esnal et al. 2010). Requires natural seasonal disturbances.	MH	MH
2. Establishment requirements?	The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure (Plants Future 1996–2008). Will tolerate damp conditions and partial shade (Cottage Garden 2010). Percentage germination of G. verum after 3 months: bare soil 56%, short turf 57%, tall turf 39.3%, and after 30 days in the viability test on moist filter paper 70% (Fenner 1978). Can establish under moderate canopy/litter cover.	MH	MH
3. How much disturbance is required?	G. verum occurs in dry soils, pastures, old fields, railway lines and roadsides (Darbyshire 2003). Occurs in modified areas near settlements, rough pasture, also recorded from a limestone cliff (Moore and Edgar 1970). Yellow Bedstraw is a weed of disturbed areas including fields, empty lots, and roadsides (Poole 2003). Lady’s Bedstraw is a native perennial of dry unimproved grassland, waysides and waste ground on all but the most acid soils (Flora of Derbyshire 2010). Establishes in relatively intact or only minor disturbed natural ecosystems.	MH	MH
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	A perennial stoloniferous herb with a slender creeping stock and erect to decumbent, glabrous or sparsely pubescent, bluntly 4 angled stems 15–100 cm, with numerous ascending branches (Clapham et al. 1952). A widely distributed and highly polymorhic species. Many specific and subspecific taxa are recognised. It also hybridizes with other allied species and has numerous ecological and geographical races (eFlora Pakistan 2010) A herbaceous low scrambling, annual plant, with the stems growing to 60-120 cm long, frequently rooting where they touch the ground. (NationMaster 2003–2005). Galium verum can hybridize with G. mollugo; both species have a perennial habit and strong creeping base (Mersereau and DiTommaso 2003). Other.	L	MH
5. Allelopathic properties?	Soil incorporated plant residues of Galium aparine weed may have broad implications for the growth of succeeding wheat crop (Aziz et al. 2008). Bedstraw species, including G. mollugo, contain many compounds including mollugin, some of which have allelopathic, fungalistic or repellent effects (Mersereau and DiTommaso 2003). Numerous other Galium species have allelopathic properties. No specific reference to allelopathic properties in G. verum could be located. Allelopathic properties seriously affecting some plants.	MH	L
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	Notable numbers of seedlings germinated from horse dung samples, e.g. Galium verum and G. uliginosum (Cosyns and Hoffmann 2005). Livestock typically avoid Galium mollugo, such that it becomes firmly established and highly competitive in pasture areas, displacing more palatable forage crops (Mersereau and DiTommaso 2003). Livestock usually prefer forage grasses over bedstraw. Consequently, grazing reduces the bedstraw’s competition, which allows it to spread. If mowed soon after the first flowering, plants may flower a second time in August (Seiter 2003). No specific information on the ability of G. verum to tolerate herbivory was located in literature. Consumed but recovers quickly; capable of flowering/seed production under moderate herbivory pressure.	MH	ML
7. Normal growth rate?	Other galiums have a moderate growth rate (Sagebud 2010). Moderate growth rate of perimeter spread for Galium ferrugineum (ZipcoceZoo 2004–2009). Growth rate equal to same life form.	M	L
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	Galium verum was amongst the most winterhardy species tested in Finland (Nissinen 2004). Plants will tolerate drought conditions (Cottage Garden 2010) and are tolerant of dry soils in full sun, but do not thrive in a hot climate (Plants Future 1996–2008). Galium verum occurs in machair coastal habitat in Ireland and Scotland (Notice Nature 2007). G. verum listed as a current/potential aquatic nuisance species in Nebraska (Nebraska ISC 2010). Occurs in ecosystems of saturated to somewhat poorly-drained organic and mineral soils (Rolfsmeier and Steinauer 2010). Highly tolerant of frost, waterlogging and drought, and may be susceptible to fire. Highly tolerant of at least two of drought, frost, waterlogging and salinity. Susceptible to at least one.	MH	MH
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Perennial reproducing by seeds or rootstocks (Muencscher 1955). Many kinds of insects are attracted to the dense panicles of yellow coumarin-scented flowers of G. verum. Self pollination occurs also if the stamens of a flower bend over and touch the stigmas of the same flower. Also, because of the proximity of the flowers, pollen may fall from one flower to another, or the wind may act as a pollinating agent (Hickey and King 1899). Hermaphrodite, protandrous (Clapham et al. 1952). Flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by flies, beetles. The plant is self-fertile (Plants Future 1996–2008). Both vegetative and sexual reproduction.	H	H
10. Number of propagules produced?	Mean seed yields for Galium verum in 1997–1999 were up to 71,300 seeds m² (Nissinen 2004). The yellow flowers are produced profusely from midsummer onwards (Flora of Northern Ireland 2000–2009). Greater than 2000.	H	MH
11. Propagule longevity?	Present in seed bank for up to five years (Eriksson and Eriksson 1997). Greater than 25% of the seeds survive 5 years.	L	H
12. Reproductive period?	A perennial stoloniferous herb (Clapham et al. 1952). Stoloniferous perennial (Moore and Edgar 1970). A trailing and sprawling branched perennial (Northumberland 2010). G. verum has a perennial habit and strong creeping base (Mersereau and DiTommaso 2003). Sometimes referred to as an annual (eFlora Pakistan 2010; NationMaster 2003–2005). Mature plant produces propagules for 3–10 years.	MH	H
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	The flowering of Galium verum at the end of July was the latest flowering species among the those tested, had a long flowering period, and was the latest to set seed, setting seed at the end of September (Nissinen 2004). It is in flower from July to August, and the seeds ripen from August to September in North America (Plants Future 1996–2008). Produces propagules between 1–2 years after germination or vegetative propagules become separate individuals between 1–2 years.	MH	MH
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Stoloniferous perennial (Clapham et al. 1952; Moore and Edgar 1970). Notable numbers of seedlings germinated from horse dung samples (Cosyns and Hoffmann 2005). Cultivated as a garden ornamental (Darbyshire 2003). Propagules spread by animals or accidental human dispersal.	MH	MH
15. How far do they disperse?	A frequent constituent of wild-flower seed mixes (Flora of Derbyshire 2010). Notable numbers of seedlings germinated from horse dung samples, e.g. Galium verum and G. uliginosum (Cosyns and Hoffmann 2005). Very likely that at least one propagule will disperse greater than one kilometre.	H	H

References

Aziz A, Tanveer A, Ali A, Yasin M, Babar BH and Nadeem MA. (2008) Allelopathic effect of cleavers (Galium aparine) on germination and early growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum). Allelopathy Journal 22(1): 25–34. Available at http://www.allelopathy-journal.com/allelopathy.aspx?target=ijor:aj&volume=22&issue=1&article=003 (verified 19 May 2010).

Bu H, Chen X, Xu X, Liu K, Jia P and Du G. (2007) Seed mass and germination in an alpine meadow on the eastern Tsinghai-Tibet plateau. Plant Ecology 191:127–149. Available at http://www.springerlink.com/content/w77544435u31k878/fulltext.pdf (verified 20 May 2010).

Clapham AR, Tutin TG and Moore DM. (1952) Flora of the British Isles, Galium verum, Lady’s Bedstraw. p. 429. Available at
http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GVs4AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=+%22Flora+of+the+British+Isles%22&ots=0UQmE5ccp1&sig=4UqCz9BGj1p7YDaDJHhxNTNyic8#v=onepage&q=Galium%20verum&f=false (verified 20 May 2010).

Cosyns E and Hoffmann M. (2005) Horse dung germinable seed content in relation to plant species abundance, diet composition and seed characteristics. Basic and Applied Ecology 6: 11–24. Available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B7GVS-4DXT7VY-1-1&_cdi=20438&_user=141304&_pii=S1439179104000866&_orig=search&_coverDate=01%2F27%2F2005&_sk=999939998&view=c&wchp=dGLzVlbzSkzV&md5=47d07061cfa935b5a3d1253132f40ce5&ie=/sdarticle.pdf (verified 19 May 2010).

Cottage Garden (2010) The English Cottage Garden Nursery Co. Ltd., Galium verum page. Available at http://www.englishplants.co.uk/ladysbed.html (verified 18 May 2010).

Darbyshire SJ. (2003) Inventory of Canadian Agricultural Weeds, Galium verum. p. 233. Available at http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/A42-100-2003E.pdf (verified 14 May 2010).

eFl Pakistan (2010) Flora of Pakistan, Family List, Rubiaceae, Galium, 9. Galium verum L., p. 66 Available at http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=200022090 (verified 18 May 2010).

Eriksson A and Eriksson O. (1997) Seedling recruitment in semi-natural pastures: the effects of disturbance, seed size, phenology and seed bank. Nordic Journal of Botany 17: 469– 482. Available at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/119831054/PDFSTART (verified 19 May 2010).

Freckmann Herbarium (2010) University of Wisconsin, Robert W. Freckmann Herbarium. Available at http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=GALVER (verified 20 May 2010).

Fenner M. (1978) A comparison of the abilities of colonisers and closed turf species to establish from seed in artificial swards. Journal of Ecology 66: 953–963.

Flora of Derbyshire (2010) Derby City Council and Derbyshire Flora Committee. Available at http://www.derby.gov.uk/dccwebdev/museum/flora/flora.aspx?SpeciesID=746 (verified 17 May 2010).

Moore LB and Edgar E. (1970) Flora of New Zealand. Volume II. Indigenous Tracheophyta - Monocotyledons except Graminae. First electronic edition, Landcare Research, June 2004. Transcr. A.D. Wilton and I.M.L. Andres. Galium verum page. Available at http://floraseries.landcareresearch.co.nz/pages/Taxon.aspx?id=_ab18b07e-723c-4398-b176-bcc0899de0f1&fileName=Flora%204.xml#_ab18b07e-723c-4398-b176-bcc0899de0f1 (verified 25 May 2010).

Flora of Northern Ireland (2000–2009) Nation National Museums Northern Ireland Flora of Northern Ireland, Galium verum page. Available at
http://www.habitas.org.uk/flora/species.asp?item=4309 (verified 17 May 2010).

Hickey M and King C. (1899) 100 Families of Flowering Plants, Galium verum. p 441. Available at
http://books.google.com.au/books?id=LDh7fz9uToMC&pg=PA441&lpg=PA441&dq=%22Galium+verum%22+flora&source=bl&ots=kv9r4HL6g2&sig=WsbJlehvfCH11NL51RMYSBW-oH8&hl=en&ei=VgvtS8_CMsuLkAWsjP3nBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBcQ6AEwATha#v=onepage&q&f=false (verified 14 May 2010).

Mersereau D and DiTommaso A. (2003) The biology of Canadian weeds. 121. Galium mollugo L. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 83: 453–466. Available at
http://www.css.cornell.edu/weedeco/Galium%20mollugo%20CJPl.Sci.pdf (verified 18 May 2010).

Muencscher, WC. (1955) Weeds 2nd Edition. Comstock Publishing Associates, London.

NationMaster (2003–2005). Galium verum, Lady's Bedstraw. Available at http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Galium-verum (verified 14 May 2010).

Nebraska ISC (2010) Nebraska Aquatic Nuisance Species Management Plan, Nebraska Invasive Species Council, Nebraska Aquatic Nuisance Species Planning Committee. Available at
http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=6&ved=0CCsQFjAF&url=http%3A%2F%2Fsnr.unl.edu%2Finvasives%2Fdocuments%2FNebraskaANSPlanDraft1.doc&rct=j&q=%22yellow+bedstraw%22+salinity&ei=3JX0S9mKDdegkQWk2p3vCA&usg=AFQjCNEK2SP3apdonfJOpvc0PxvODCXRow (verified 20 May 2010).

Nissinen O. (2004) Wildflower seed yields in northern Finland. Grassland Science in Europe 9: 249–251. Available at
http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=LRz5ILv0scYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA249&dq=%22galium+verum%22+germination&ots=iMOGWspLSr&sig=ovn9Uv7CkGKM4lJPbQQ6Xn3pJBg#v=onepage&q=%22galium%20verum%22&f=false (verified 18 May 2010).

Northumberland (2010) Northumberland Wildlife Trust, Galium verum page. Available at http://www.nwt.org.uk/index.php?section=environment:species:plant&id=430 (verified 17 May 2010).

Notice Nature (2007) Coastal Habitats, Machair. Available at http://www.noticenature.ie/files/coastal-habitats.pdf (verified 20 May 2010).

Plants Future (1996–2008) Plants for a Future, Galium verum page. Available at http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Galium+verum (verified 17 May 2010).

Rolfsmeier SB and Steinauer G. (2010) Terestrial Ecological Stems and Communities in Nebraska, Ecological Systems of Nebraska, Wetland Systems, Western Great Plains Open Freshwater Depression Wetland ecosystem. Available at
http://www.prairienebraska.org/NE%20terr%20comm%20complete%20final%20doc%20in%20word%20_Mar%202,%202010_.pdf (verified 20 May 2010).

Poole RW. (2003) Nearctica, Eastern Wildflowers of North America, Galium verum page. Available at http://www.nearctica.com/flowers/rubia/Gverum.htm (verified 18 May 2010).

Royo-Esnal A, Torra J, Conesa JA, Forcella F, and Recasens J. (2010) Modelling the emergence of three arable bedstraw (Galium) species. Weed Science 58: 10–15. Available at http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1614/WS-09-063.1 (verified 18 May 2010).

Sagebud (2010) Sagebud, Galium pages. Available at http://www.sagebud.com/tag/galium/page/8/ (verified 19 May 2010).

Seiter S. (2003) Managing Smooth Bedstraw in Forage Crops. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture University of New Hampshire, Cooperative Extension.
Available at http://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource000032_Rep32.pdf (verified April 2010).

ZipcoceZoo (2004–2009) Galium ferrugineum page. Available at http://www.earthfirstinventions.com/Plants/G/Galium_ferrugineum_ferrugineum/ (verified 19 May 2010).

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2010) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at
http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 5 May 2010).

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI) http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified 5 May 2010).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2010) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 5 May 2010).

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. (2010) Available at http://www.itis.gov/ (verified 5 May 2010)

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2010) w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database, Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (verified 5 May 2010).

Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne. (2007) Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria. Available at http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/research_and_conservation/plant_information/viclist (verified 24 May 2010).

United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Service, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. Taxonomy Query. (2009) Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxgenform.pl (verified 17 May 2010).

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