Sparaxis (Sparaxis spp)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Sparaxis spp. Ker-Gawl.
Common name(s):	Sparaxis

Map showing the present distribution of this weed.

Habitat:

Preference for wet sandy habitats (Goldblatt 1992); Needs good drainage & full sun but an cope with semi shade and relatively poor soil (PLAF 2009). Heathlands, grasslands, woodlands, roadsides, ephemeral wetlands, wet, sandy, or limestone cliffs (DPIVIC 2009). Bushland (Richardson et al. 2006). Hardy to frost (GBSA 2009). Dry and wet conditions (Muyt 2001). Drainage lines, seasonal wetlands (Muyt 2001). S. bulbifera invades heathlands, grasslands, woodlands, roadsides, and ephemeral wetlands, wet, sandy or limestone cliffs (DPIVIC 2009). S. tricolour grows along roadsides, and on vacant land and disturbed bushland; naturalized locally in the Sydney region (PLNT 2009).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Pasture irrigation

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; swampy scrub; lowland forest; riparian; granitic hillslopes; semi-arid woodland; freshwater wetland (ephemeral)

Colours indicate possibility of Sparaxis spp infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of sparaxis spp

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	Small perennial herbs (Spencer 2005). 65cm tall (Muyt 2001). “Forming large swards along roadsides and in other areas” (Muyt 2001). Low nuisance value. Impedes individual access; unable to walk to waterways.	ML	MH
2. Reduce tourism?	Ornamental flowers, no spines, burrs or thorns (Blood 2001). “Forming large swards along roadsides and in other areas” (Muyt 2001). Maximum height 65cm (Muyt 2001). Therefore could visually affect cultural areas depending on individual perception of an ornamental flower which is a weed. Minor effects to aesthetics and/or recreational uses (ie. Aware but not bothered or activity inhibited).	ML	MH
3. Injurious to people?	No spines, burrs or thorns (Blood 2001). No effect, no prickles, no injuries.	L	MH
4. Damage to cultural sites?	Species hybidize often, e.g. A range of hybrids between S. bulbifera and S. tricolour are frequent in gardens and also as feral populations (Spencer 2005). Therefore could visually affect cultural areas depending on individual perception of an ornamental flower which is a weed. As a cormous geophyte - root structure is unlikely to be strong enough to cause structural damage to a heritage site. Moderate visual effect.	ML	MH
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	Perennial herb with annual leaves and flowers (Richardson et al. 2006). Terrestrial species’, therefore no effect on water flow. Little or negligible effect on water flow.	L	MH
6. Impact water quality?	Terrestrial species’, therefore no effect on water quality. No noticeable effect on dissolved O2 or light levels.	L	MH
7. Increase soil erosion?	No information about soil erosion, forms large swards (Muyt 2001), therefore may have some capacity for soil binding.	M	L
8. Reduce biomass?	“Forming large swards along roadsides and in other areas” (Muyt 2001). Extensive stands can establish, particularly following disturbance around existing populations” (Blood 2001). “Impedes the growth and regeneration of indigenous ground-flora” (Blood 2001). Therefore likely to directly replace biomass.	ML	M
9. Change fire regime?	Foliage browns off and dies back as hotter conditions develop (Blood 2001). Generally survives fire (Florabase 2009). Therefore may increase frequency and/ or intensity of fire as it provides additional fuel during the hotter dryer months.	M	MH
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Plains grassland (E); CMA = Wimmera; Bioregion =Wimmera; VH CLIMATE potential. Grasslands (Dpivic 2009). Forms large swards (Muyt 2009). Extensive stands establish after some disturbance to existing vegetation (Blood 2001). Major displacement of some dominant species within a strata/layer (or some dominant spp. within different layers).	MH	MH
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Heathy woodland (D); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Bridgewater; VH CLIMATE potential. Heathland,,woodland (DPIVIC 2009). Forms large swards (Muyt 2009). Extensive stands establish after some disturbance to existing vegetation (Blood 2001). Major displacement of some dominant species within a strata/layer (or some dominant spp. within different layers).	MH	MH
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Wet heathland (LC); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Bridgewater; VH CLIMATE potential. Wet sandy habitats (Goldblatt 1992), heathlands (Dpivic 2009). Forms large swards (Muyt 2009). Extensive stands establish after some disturbance to existing vegetation (Blood 2001). Major displacement of some dominant species within a strata/layer (or some dominant spp. within different layers).	MH	MH
11. Impact on structure?	“Forming large swards along roadsides and in other areas (Muyt 2001). “Impedes the growth and regeneration of indigenous ground-flora. Extensive stands can establish, particularly following disturbance around existing populations” (Blood 2001). Major effect on indigenous ground flora. Minor effect on >60% of the layers or major effect on < 60% of the floral strata.	MH	MH
12. Effect on threatened flora?	“Forming large swards along roadsides and in other areas” (Muyt 2001). No specific evidence for threatened flora species, but has the potential to reduce population size of a threatened species when they are in the same vegetation community. Any population of a VROT spp is reduced.	ML	M
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Impedes the growth and regeneration of native plants (Weber 2003 as cited in IMAS (2009). May therefore reduce food as plants rarely eaten by animals (Blood 2001). But no specific information on threatened fauna. Reduction in food/habitat/shelter.	ML	M
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	Impedes the growth and regeneration of native plants (Weber 2003 as cited in IMAS (2009). May therefore reduce food as plants rarely eaten by animals (Blood 2001).	ML	MH
15. Benefits fauna?	Plants rarely eaten by animals (Blood 2001). Visited by hopliine beetles (Lepithrix ornatella), short proboscid flies (Mesomyia sp.), and pollen collecting bees for nectar (INAS 2009). Provides some assistance in either food or shelter to desirable species.	MH	MH
16. Injurious to fauna?	No spines, burrs or thorns (Blood 2001). No poisonous properties reported in literature (pers. obs). No effect.	L	MH
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	Visited by hopliine beetles (Lepithrix ornatella), short proboscid flies (Mesomyia sp.), and pollen collecting bees for nectar (INAS 2009). May therefore provide nectar for environmental insect pests. Supplies food for one or more minor pest species. (eg. Blackbirds or environmental insect pests).	ML	MH
18. Provides harbor?	Small perennial herbs (Spencer 2005). Life form not conducive to providing harbour to fauna. Maximum height 65cm (Muyt 2001). Therefore could possibly harbour bush rabbits, but also is not often eaten by animals (Blood 2001). Doesn’t provide harbour for serious pest species, but may provide for minor pest spp.	ML	MH
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	Not recorded as a weed of agriculture, but has significant potential to invade grasslands (Blood 2002 as cited in INAS 2009). Unlikely to affect yield but no mention of affect on yield in literature. Little or negligible effect on quantity of yield.	L	M
20. Impact quality?	Not recorded as a weed of agriculture, but has significant potential to invade grasslands (Blood 2002 as cited in INAS 2009). Also, is not often eaten by animals (Blood 2001). Therefore likely to reduce food availability to livestock. Minor impact on the quantity of produce.	ML	MH
21. Affect land value?	No information, unlikely.	ML	L
22. Change land use?	No information, unlikely.	ML	L
23. Increase harvest costs?	Not recorded as a weed of agriculture, but has significant potential to invade grasslands (Blood 2002 as cited in INAS 2009). Also, is not often eaten by animals (Blood 2001). Therefore likely to reduce food availability to livestock. Therefore control would be necessary and spraying and/ or removal would increase harvest costs. Minor increase in cost of harvesting – e.g. Slightly more time or labour is required.	ML	MH
24. Disease host/vector?	Pests do not pose a major problem to the species (S. Grandiflora), although slugs and snails may cause extensive damage to the foliage (PLAF 2009). Provides host to minor (or common) pests, or diseases.	ML	MH

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Preference for wet sandy habitats (Goldblatt ’92 as cited in INAS 2009). Germinates in autumn (Blood 2001). Requires natural seasonal disturbances, such as rainfall/temperature/day length for germination.	MH	MH
2. Establishment requirements?	Needs good drainage and full sun, but can cope with semi shade (PLAF 2009). Will grow well and bloom in relatively poor soil. “Invades heathlands, grasslands, woodlands, roadsides, and ephemeral wetlands, wet, sandy or limestone cliffs (DPI VIC 2009). Requires more specific requirements to establish (eg. Open space or bare ground with access to light and direct rainfall).	ML	M
3. How much disturbance is required?	“Garden escapes that establish quickly along roadsides, in grassland and bushland” (Richardson et al. 2006). Two of three species in western Australia are found around old settlements (Hussey et al. 1997). Invades heathlands, grasslands, woodlands, roadsides, and ephemeral wetlands, wet, sandy or limestone cliffs (Dpivic 2009). Establishes in only minor disturbed natural ecosystems (eg. Wetlands, riparian, riverine, grasslands, open woodlands).	MH	MH
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	Perennial herb (Richardson et al. 2006). Geophyte (Muyt 2001; Carr et al. ’92 as cited in INAS 2009). Geophyte.	ML	H
5. Allelopathic properties?	No Allelopathic properties reported in the literature (pers. Obs).	M	L
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	Plants rarely eaten by animals, encouraged by light to moderate grazing (Muyt 2001). Consumed but non preferred.	MH	MH
7. Normal growth rate?	Forms large swards, above ground parts die back each year (Muyt 2001). Establish quickly (Richardson et al. 2006). Sparaxis sp. Will crowd out small native plants (INAS 2009). Moderately rapid growth rate that will equal competitive species of the same life form.	MH	MH
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	Hardy to frost and easy to grow (GBSA 2009). Dry and wet conditions (Muyt 2001). Drainage lines, roadside drains, seasonal wetlands (Muyt 2001). Therefore can tolerate some waterlogging. Generally survives fire (Florabase 2009). Resistant to drought, frost and waterlogging (INAS 2009). Highly tolerant of at least two of drought, frost, fire, waterlogging, and salinity, and may be tolerant of another. Susceptible to at least one.	MH	MH
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	“They all spread from corms and seeds” (Hussey et al. 1997). Both vegetative and sexual reproduction.	H	MH
10. Number of propagules produced?	“Fruit 3-celled; 20-100 seeded (many) (Flora base 2009). Extremely prolific producer of cormlets and corms (Muyt 2001). Six flowers per plant (INAS 2009). Estimate 100 * 6 = 600 seeds. 50-1000 seeds. But also many corms and cormlets. 1000-2000 propagules.	MH	MH
11. Propagule longevity?	Seedbank persistence: Less than one year (Florabase 2009). Greater than 25% of seeds survive 5 years, or vegetatively reproduces.	L	MH
12. Reproductive period?	Should flower readily for about 5 years (S. Grandiflora) but it may be difficult to keep them going thereafter (PLAF 2009). Time to first flowering 2-3 years (S. bulbifera) (Florabase 2009). S. grandiflora can live for approximately 10 years (PLAF 2009). Therefore approx. 7 years reproductive period. Mature plant produces viable propagules for 3-10 years.	MH	MH
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	Time to first flowering 2-3 years (S. bulbifera) (Florabase 2009). No information on time until corms are produced. 2-5 years to reach sexual maturity or for vegetative propagules to become separate individuals.	ML	M
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Reproduce by seed, corms and leaf bulbils – seed and bulbils are dispersed by water, wind, slashing, in garden refuse and soil; Corms are dispersed in garden refuse, soil and during removal (Blood 2001). Propagules spread by wind, water, attachment (humans, animals, or vehicles), or accidental human dispersal (ploughing).	MH	MH
15. How far do they disperse?	Small infestations can be spread several kilometres by road-making equipment (Muyt 2001). Very likely that at least one propagule will disperse greater than one kilometre.	H	MH

References

Blood, K. (2001) Environmental Weeds: A field guide for SE Australia. CRC Weed Management systems. C.H. Jerram Science publishers.

DPIVIC (2009) Department of Primary Industries. Harlequin Flower. Available at http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/weeds_herbs_perennial_bulb_harlequin (verified 04/2009).

Florabase (2009). Florabase: The Western Australian Flora. Available at http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/22374 (verified April 2009).

GBSA (2009) Growing bulbs in Southern Africa by Floris Barnhoom. Available at
http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Kmha_DWb_oMC&dq=Growing+bulbs+in+Southern+Africa&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=Q0uUxo2azm&sig=x5FhBpWTWef mKy8x5XZ0qnNgWak&hl=en&ei=30_1Sc31BYaYkQXqhK3eCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PPP15,M1 (Verified 04/2009).

IMAS (2009) Impact assessment – Harlequin flower. DPI. Available at http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/impact_harlequin_flower (verified 01/2016).

INAS (2009) Invasiveness assessment – Harlequin flower. DPI. Available at http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/vrosite.nsf/pages/invasive_harlequin_flower (verified 01/2016).

Muyt, A. (2001) Bush invaders of South-East Australia : a guide to the identification and control of environmental weeds found in South-East Australia. R.G. & F.J. Richardson.

PLAF (2009) Plantzafrica.com Available at http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantqrs/aparxgrandgrand.htm (verified 04/2009).

PLNT (2009) Plant Net. New South Wales Flora Online. Available at http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Sparaxis~tricolor (verified 05/2009).

Richardson, F. J., Richardson, R. G. and Shepherd, R. C. H. (2006) Weeds of the South East. An identification guide for Australia. R. G. & F. J. Richardson.

Spencer, R (2005) Horticultural Flora of South – Eastern Australia. UNSW Press.

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2008) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at
http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 17/02/2009).

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI) Available at
http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified 07/05/2009).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2008) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 17/02/2009).
Integrated Taxonomic Information System. (2009) Available at http://www.itis.gov/ (verified 07/05/2009).

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2009) w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database, Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (viewed 17/02/2009).

United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Service, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. Taxonomy Query. (2009) Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxgenform.pl (verified 26/03/2009).

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