Reedgrass (Calamagrostis epigeios)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth
Common name(s):	wood-small reed, chee reedgrass, bush grass, reedgrass

This weed is not known to be naturalised in Victoria.

Habitat:

In its native range in Central Europe it occurs in river floodplains and coastal dunes (Lehmann, Rebele 2005), outside of its native range it occurs in forests (Tosserams, Rozema 1995), clearings, floodplains, sandy sediments along rivers, acidic dry grassland, degraded meadows (Fiala et al 2003), calcareous dune grasslands (Van den Berg et al 2005), fens, steppes and sub-alpine grasslands, semi-natural vegetation after human abandonment (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008). Found to occur up to 1500m a.s.l (Egamberdiyeva 2006), in areas of annual average rainfall of 600 – 650 mm (Holec, Frouz, Pokorný 2006) and temperature ranges from 31⁰C to -3⁰C (Egamberdiyeva 2006). Also established in Ca-deficient soils (Březina et al 2006) open, moist and nutrient-rich conditions (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Forestry; horticulture perennial; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation; water

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; grassy/heathy dry forest; swampy scrub; treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; damp forest; riparian; wet forest; high altitude shrubland/woodland; alpine treeless; western plains woodland; basalt grassland; alluvial plains grassland; semi-arid woodland; alluvial plains woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest; freshwater wetland (ephemeral); saline wetland

Colours indicate possibility of Calamagrostis epigeios infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

Map showing the potential distribution of reedgrass

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	150 cm high shoots (Březina et al 2006) – low nuisance value, but would still be able to walk to waterways	l	mh
2. Reduce tourism?	As it has 150 cm high shoots (Březina et al 2006) and forms monocultures (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007) both aesthetics and recreational uses would be affect if it replaces lower grasses – minor effects to aesthetics and recreational uses	ml	mh
3. Injurious to people?	“opportunistic pathogens causing urinary tract infections, septicaemia, and Pneumonia” were isolated from the roots (Egamberdiyeva 2006) – extremely toxic	h	mh
4. Damage to cultural sites?	As it has 150 cm high shoots (Březina et al 2006) and forms monocultures (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007) it has potential to have a moderate visual effect on cultural sites.	ml	mh
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	It is listed as a wetland species - “equally likely to occur in wetlands or non-wetlands” (USDA 2008) and as a non-indigenous aquatic plant in the fresh water portion of the Hudson River basin (Mills et al 1996). However there is no mention of it having an impact on water flow.	m	l
6. Impact water quality?	It is listed as a wetland species - “equally likely to occur in wetlands or non-wetlands” (USDA 2008) and as a non-indigenous aquatic plant in the fresh water portion of the Hudson River basin (Mills et al 1996). The high above-ground biomass production results “in a high competitive vigour for light” (Van den Berg et al 2005) – noticeable but minor effects on light levels	ml	mh
7. Increase soil erosion?	“Dense Calamagrostis—floristically very poor habitat with vegetation strongly dominated by well developed clumps of the grass C. epigejos. Here, vegetation cover is about 95%, height approximately 100 cm and there is a dense litter layer accumulated on the soil surface (Holec, Frouz, Pokorný 2006) “soil-holding qualities” (FOC 2008) – it is likely that stands of C. epigeios decreases the probability of soil erosion.	l	mh
8. Reduce biomass?	Shoots grow to an average of 113 cm and “pure stands are common” (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998) Above-ground dry biomass of 15.79 g/m² at Rutasuo, Finland, which exceeded all other species found at the site, the next highest above-ground biomass being 10.33 g/m2 (Salonen, Setala 1992) Stable and high biomass production (Fiala et al 2003) – biomass may increase	l	h
9. Change fire regime?	“The output of ash from bush grass (Calamagrostis epigeios), residues of grass crops and moss averaged to 7% of the total fuel burned” from forest fires in the Polesye Regions of the Ukraine and Belorussia (Dusha-Gudym 1996). As it forms monocultures (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007), grows to 150 cm (Březina et al 2006) and forms a dense litter layer (Holec, Frouz, Pokorný 2006) it is likely that C. epigeios will moderately change the frequency and intensity of fire risk	mh	m
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Floodplain Riparian Woodland (E); CMA = Corangamite; Bioregion = Victorian Volcanic Plain; H CLIMATE potential. Currently medium grasses/sedges/herbs make up 40% of vegetation cover (DSE2008) and in its natural range it grows in river floodplains (Březina et al 2006) – monoculture within a specific layer (H climate potential = MH score)	mh	mh
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Coastal Alkaline Scrub (D); CMA = Port Phillip and Western Port; Bioregion = Gippsland Plain; H CLIMATE potential. Stable sand dunes, 40% canopy cover (DSE 2008), coastal dunes (Březina et al 2006) – monoculture within a specific layer (H climate potential = MH score)	mh	mh
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Coastal Dune Scrub/ Coastal Dune Grassland (LC); CMA = Port Phillip and Western Port; Bioregion = Gippsland Plain; H CLIMATE potential coastal dunes (Březina et al 2006) – monoculture within a specific layer (H climate potential = MH score)	mh	mh
11. Impact on structure?	Dominates colonised sites (Březina et al 2006) and forms pure stands (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998), determines the community physiognomy and cover ranges from 80-100% (Ollerová 2006). It is a “vigorous clonal species, which form monotonous and long-persisting stands” (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007) – forms monoculture	h	h
12. Effect on threatened flora?	Dominates colonised sites (Březina et al 2006) and forms “monotonous and long-persisting stands” (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007) – likely to effect threatened flora, however this has not yet been determined	mh	l
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Dominates colonised sites (Březina et al 2006) and forms “monotonous and long-persisting stands” (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007) – likely to effect habitat and food sources for threatened fauna, however this has not yet been determined	mh	l
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	In regards to “nature protection it is important species not only for its well spreading but also because difficulty decomposed litter is accumulated and colonization and persistence of other biota, including ants, may be limited.” (Holec, Frouz, Pokorný 2006) – reduction in habitat leading to reduction in numbers	mh	mh
15. Benefits fauna?	As C. epigeios is not yet established in Australia the benefits to indigenous fauna are unknown, however it provides shelter for tree pipit (Anthus trivialis) nests in Eastern England (Burton 2006).	M	l
16. Injurious to fauna?	No mention of this in the literature, however as it is said to be eaten by insects (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998) and ungulates (Borkowski 2004 and Sykora et al 1999) it is unlikely that C. epigeios is toxic to native fauna	m	l
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	Shown to increase after rabbits had been eradicated from a Juniper forest area in Hungary (Katona 2004) – supplies food to a serious pest	mh	m
18. Provides harbor?	Weedy vegetation communities of which C. epigios is a part “can lodge many rodents… this is especially true for granivorous species” (Heroldova et al 2005), grows 150cm high shoots (Březina et al 2006) and forms monocultures (Cramer, Hobbs ed 2007). Cover is one of the most important habitat feature for both foxes (Saunders et al 1995) and rabbits (Williams et al 1995), indicating that a stand of C. epigeios would provide ideal harbour for rabbits and foxes – capacity to provide harbour and permanent warrens for foxes and rabbits throughout the year	h	m
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	Although it is listed as an “Agricultural weed” (Weeds CRC 2008), many studies show that it invades vegetation communities after being abandoned by various agricultural practices have ceased. For example - “present in abandoned vineyards, hay-meadows and pastures” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) and was found in an abandoned alfalfa field, where it did not exist whilst the field was under cultivation (Heroldova et al 2005) – little or negligible effect on quantity of yield	l	m
20. Impact quality?	Although it is listed as an “Agricultural weed” (Weeds CRC 2008), many studies show that it invades vegetation communities after being abandoned by various agricultural practices have ceased. For example - “present in abandoned vineyards, hay-meadows and pastures” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) and was found in an abandoned alfalfa field, where it did not exist whilst the field was under cultivation (Heroldova et al 2005) – little or negligible effect on quality of yield	l	m
21. Affect land value?	Although it is listed as an “Agricultural weed” (Weeds CRC 2008), many studies show that it invades vegetation communities after being abandoned by various agricultural practices have ceased. For example - “present in abandoned vineyards, hay-meadows and pastures” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) and was found in an abandoned alfalfa field, where it did not exist whilst the field was under cultivation (Heroldova et al 2005) – little or no effect	l	m
22. Change land use?	Although it is listed as an “Agricultural weed” (Weeds CRC 2008), many studies show that it invades vegetation communities after being abandoned by various agricultural practices have ceased. For example - “present in abandoned vineyards, hay-meadows and pastures” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) and was found in an abandoned alfalfa field, where it did not exist whilst the field was under cultivation (Heroldova et al 2005) – little or no change	l	m
23. Increase harvest costs?	Although it is listed as an “Agricultural weed” (Weeds CRC 2008), many studies show that it invades vegetation communities after various agricultural practices have ceased. For example - “present in abandoned vineyards, hay-meadows and pastures” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) and was found in an abandoned alfalfa field, where it did not exist whilst the field was under cultivation (Heroldova et al 2005) – little or none	l	m
24. Disease host/vector?	Host of the bacilliform Wheat Winter Mosaic Rhabdovirus (WWnMV) (Sutic, Ford, Tosic 1999) although this only ocurrs in the former USSR (ICTVdB Management 2006). Host of Rice Stripe tenuivirus, which affects shoots, leaves and tillers. Not known to exist in Australia (DAFF 2000)	m	m

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Sandy soils (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998), Alluvial meadow South Moravia (Fiala et al 2003), It was found to establish “on harvested peat surfaces where seeds and seedlings are to meet with deficiency of both water and nutrients” (Salonen, Setala 1992) – season for germination unknown	m	l
2. Establishment requirements?	“Grass shoot abundance… was negatively influenced by the shading of trees… considered an aggressive weed in cleared forests” (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998) “C. epigejos grows over a wide range of nutrient status. The species tolerates very low nutrient levels; however, growth and reproduction is enhanced under open, moist and nutrient (especially N) rich conditions” (Lehmann, Rebele 2005) “a natural component of vegetation on sand dunes, river floodplains, fens, steppes and sub-alpine grasslands” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) “It grows over a wide range of soil nutrient conditions; at the same time its growth and reproduction are enhanced under open, moist and nutrient-rich conditions” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) “forest floor vegetation was dominated by Calamagrostis epigeios” (Muzenberger, Huttl 1999) – Can establish under moderate canopy cover	mh	h
3. How much disturbance is required?	“Competitive ability of this rhizomatous grass is high; pure stands are common, and are widespread on sandy soils. In addition, C. epigeios is considered an aggressive weed in cleared forests” (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998) “Common plant species in the coastal dune grasslands and forests of The Netherlands (Tosserams, Rozema 1995) Degraded meadows in South Moravia, Czech Republic (Fiala et al 2003) “At high N-levels, C. epigeios dominated the vegetation within two years. Carlina vulgaris and Galium verum (herbaceous species) declined drastically as a result of increased competition for light by the highly competitive grass C. epigeios” (Van den Berg et al 2005) “Expanding vigorously into many natural and semi-natural habitats in Eurasia, changing plant community composition… site disturbance can actually enhance its spread” (Kavanova, Gloser 2005) “The NE (non-polar extractable substances) concentrations in soil are so high, that… Calamagrostis epigeios can be considered as very resistant to pollution by oil substances” (Ollerová 2006) “In eastern central Europe, vegetation on heavily polluted or otherwise degradated sites is often dominated by Calamagrostis epigejos (L.) Roth (Wood small-reed)… C. epigejos survives where other species are not able to grow under severe pollution (Rebele et al., 1993). “C. epigejos is important competitor of later successional stages on dumps and successfully expanding also to other disturbed sites (forest clearings, infrequently mowed or degraded meadows, dumps etc.).” (Holec, Frouz, Pokorný 2006) – Establishes in both minor disturbed natural ecosystems and highly disturbed areas	mh	h
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	Aquatic macrophyte (Samecka-Cymerman, Kempers 2001), Perennial rhizomatous grass (Kavanova, Gloser 2005), Wetland species - “equally likely to occur in wetlands or non-wetlands” (USDA 2008), Listed as a non-indigenous aquatic plant in the fresh water portion of the Hudson River basin (Mills et al 1996) – semi aquatic	h	h
5. Allelopathic properties?	Allelopathy not mentioned in the literature	m	l
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	It is a food source to many insects that are more likely to attack thicker shoots (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998) but is “rarely eaten by deer unless it is young” (Borkowski 2004). In a coastal dune system near The Hague, The Netherlands, and on the Songnen plain grassland, China, heavy grazing by cattle, horses and sheep led to the near disappearance of C. epigeios (Sykora et al 1999 and Renzhong, Ripley 1997) as “the spread of this species can be hindered with the elimination of its shoots” (Somadi, Viragh, Aszalos 2004). “During the initial phase (of defoliation) the total plant biomass decreased, but it was rapidly restored to pre-defoliation levels by the next week” (Kavanova, Gloser 2005) Preferred food of the grasshopper Euthystria brachyptera (Mulkern 1967) Shown to increase after rabbits had been eradicated from a Juniper forest area in Hungary (Katona 2004) – reproduction strongly inhibited by herbivory, however still survives under insect herbivory and can recover, but does not appear to recover from ungulate grazing until the exclusion of these animals	ml	h
7. Normal growth rate?	“Expanding vigorously into many natural and semi-natural habitats in Eurasia, changing plant community composition” (Kavanova, Gloser 2005) and “is considered an aggressive weed in cleared forests” (Dubbert, Tscharntke, Vidal 1998). Its high above-ground biomass production results in “high competitive vigour for light.” (Van den Berg et al 2005)” – rapid growth that will exceed most other species of the same life form	h	h
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	“flood-intolerant species” (Van Bodegom 2008) although grows in “saline marsh” conditions (Wang 2004) – tolerant, but not highly resistant to waterlogging “competitive species of drier conditions” (Bakker 2007) Tolerance towards dry soil conditions (Pavlíková et al 2007) “adapted to low nutrient availability and to water stress, which reduces the need for soil improvement” (Lehmann, Rebele 2004) – drought tolerant “early successional species… invaded burned areas immediately after fire” (Marozas, Racinskas, Bartkevicius 2007) “the burnt area in Rudy Raciborskie rapidly became dominated by wood small-reed (Calamagrostis epigeios)” (Borkowski 2004) – fire tolerant Grows in “light salinity” and “saline marsh” in the Songnen saline grasslands in Northeastern China (Wang 2004) – salinity tolerant Grows in and around the Thetford Forest in eastern England which have frosty nights (Burton 2006) – frost tolerant	mh	h
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Amphimictic (Teeri, Lokki 1984) – sexual “Although C. epigejos propagates predominantly vegetatively, sexual reproduction also occurs and populations of C. epigejos possess different levels of clonal diversity according to habitat” (Lehmann, Rebele 2005) – sexual and vegetative	h	h
10. Number of propagules produced?	Unknown	m	l
11. Propagule longevity?	Unknown	m	l
12. Reproductive period?	“clones of … Calamagrostis epigeios were found commonly to reach 200 and some clones 400 years old” (Harper, White 1974)	h	h
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	Young ramets survived upon severing, indicating vegetative propagules became separate individuals in the first year (Březina et al 2006)	h	h
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Usually spreads by “strong underground rhizomes, which can spread up to several meters in one direction,” forming “circles up to 20 m in diameter” (Březina et al 2006) “Total rhizome expansion can be up to 150 cm per year” (Lehmann, Rebele 2005). “The… spread of C. epigeios is facilitated by its ability to regenerate from rhizome fragments. These propagules may be transported among agricultural sites unintentionally, so that fragments can already be present by the time of abandonment” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) Seed dispersed by wind (Nilsson, Nilsson 1978) – propagules spread by wind, attachment and accidental human dispersal	mh	h
15. How far do they disperse?	Seed dispersed by wind from “a few hundred metres” to 1.1 km (Nilsson, Nilsson 1978). Rhizome fragments that “may be transported among agricultural sites unintentionally” (Somadi, Viragh, Podani 2008) are also likely to be transported greater than a kilometer	h	h

References

Bakker C, van Bodegom PM, Nelissen HJM, Aerts R, Ernst WHO (2007) Preference of wet dune species for waterlogged conditions can be explained by adaptations and specific recruitment requirements. Aquatic Botany 86, 37-45

Borkowski J (2004) Distribution and habitat use by red and roe deer following a large forest fire in South-west Poland. Forest Ecology & Management 201(2/3), 287-293

Březina S, Koubek T, Münzbergová Z, Herben T (2006) Ecological benefits of integration of Calamagrostis epigejos ramets under field conditions. Flora – Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants 201(6), 461-467

Burton NHK (2006) Nest orientation and hatching success in the tree pipit Anthus trivialis. Journal of Avian Biology 37, 312-317

Cramer VA, Hobbs RJ (ed) (2007) Old Fields; dynamics and restoration of abandoned farmland. Island Press.

DAFF (2000) Viruses, phytoplasmas and sprioplasmas of clonal grasses and their diagnosis; Consultancy report. Plant Biosecurity, Biosecurity Australia. Available at http://www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/24762/consul_rpt_clonal.pdf (verified 7 May 2008)

DSE (2008) Ecological Vegetation Class (EVC) Benchmarks for each Bioregion. Department of Sustainability and the Environment, VIC. Available at http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/dse/nrence.nsf/linkview/43fe7df24a1447d9ca256ee6007ea8788062d358172e420c4a256dea0012f71c (verified 27 May 2008)

Dubbert M, Tscharntke T, Vidal S (1998) Stem-boring insects of fragmented Calamagrostis habitats: herbivore-parasitoid community structure and the unpredictability of grass shoot abundance. Ecological Entomology, 23 (3), 271-280

Dusha-Gudym SI (1996) The effects of forest fires on the concentration and transport of radionuclides. In Goldammer JG, Furyaev VV eds, Fire in ecosystems of boreal Eurasia. Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Egamberdiyeva D (2006) Comparative analysis of the dynamics and functions of rhizosphere soil microbial community in two ecosystems of the Chatkal Biosphere Reserve. Tashkent State University of Agriculture, Uzbekistan. Available at http://www.unesco.org/mab/bursaries/mysrept/2005/MYSuzbek.pdf (verified 5 May 2008)

Flora of China (FOC) (2008) Calamagrostis epigeios Vol. 22 Page 359-360. Avaliable at http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200025007 (verified 7 May 2008)

Fiala K, Holub P, Sedláková I, Tuma I, Záhora J, Tesarová, M. (2003) Reasons and consequences of expansion of Calamagrostis epigeios in alluvial meadows of landscape affected by water control measures – a multidisciplinary research. Ekológia (Bratislava) 22(2), 242–252

Groves RH (1995) Recent incursions of weeds to Australia 1971-1995. CRC Weed Management Systems. Available at http://www.crc.org.au/documents (verified 29 April 2008)

Harper JL, White J (1974) The demography of plants. Annual Reviews Ecology 5, 419-463

Heroldova M, Janova E, Bryja J, Tkadlec E (2005) Set-aside plots – source of small mammal pests? Folia Zool. 54(4), 337-350. Available at http://www.studenec.ivb.cz/Files/PDF/83.pdf (verified 6 May 2008)

Holec M, Frouz J, Pokorný R (2006) The influence of different vegetation patches on the spiral distribution of nests and the epigeic activity of ants (Lasius niger) on a spoil dump after brown coal mining (Czech Republic). European Journal of Soil Biology 42(3), 158-165

ICTVdB Management (2006). 01.062.0.85.055. Winter wheat Russian mosaic virus. In: ICTVdB - The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Büchen-Osmond, C. (Ed), Columbia University, New York, USA. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/01.062.0.85.055.htm (verified 7 May 2008)

Katona K, Biro Z, Hahn I, Kertesz M, Altbacker V (2004) Competition between European hare and European rabbit in a lowland area, Hungary: a long-term ecological study in the period of rabbit extinction. Folia Zool. 53(3), 255-268. Available at http://www.ivb.cz/folia/53/3/255-268.pdf (verified 29 April 2008)

Kavanova M, Gloser V (2005) The use of internal nitrogen stores in the rhizomatous grass Calamagrostis epigejos during regrowth after defoliation. Annals of Botanly 95, 457-463

Lehmann C, Rebele F (2005) Phenotypic plasticity in Calamagrostis epigejos (Poaceae): response capacities of genotypes from different populations of contrasting habitats to a range of soil fertility. Acta Oecologica 28(2), 127-140

Lehmann C, Rebele F (2004) Assessing the Potential for cadmium phytoremediation with Calamagrostis epigejos: A pot experiment. International Journal of Phytoremediation 6(2), 169-183

Luttschwager D, Wulf M, Rust S, Forkert J, Huttl RF (1999) Tree canopy and field layer transpiration in Scots pine stands. In Huttl RF, Bellman K eds (1999) Changes of atmospheric chemistry and effects on forest ecosystems; a roof experiment without roof. Kluwer Academic Publishers

Marozas V, Racinskas J, Bartkevicius E (2007) Dynamics of ground vegetation after surface fires in hemiboreal Pinus sylvestris forests. Forest Ecology & Management 250 (1/2), 47-55

Mills EL, Scheuerell MD, Strayer DL, Carlton JT (1996) Exotic species in the Hudson River Basin: A history of invasions and introductions. Estuaries 19(4), 814-823

Mulkern GB (1967) Food selection by grasshoppers. Annual Reviews 12, 59-78. Available at http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.en.12.010167.000423?cookieSet=1 (verified 30 April 2008)

Muzenberger, Huttl (1999) Mycorrhizal mophotypes of Scots pine. In Huttl RF, Bellman K eds (1999) Changes of atmospheric chemistry and effects on forest ecosystems; a roof experiment without roof.
Kluwer Academic Publishers

Nilsson SG, Nilsson IN (1978) Species richness and dispersal of vascular plants to islands in Lake Mockeln, Southern Sweden. Ecology 59(3), 473-480

Ollerová H (2006) Plant communities on oil-contaminated ruderal sites in the Lopejska basin district Brezno. Folia Oecologica.33(2), 108- 120

Pavlíková D, Macek T, Macková M, Pavlík M (2007) Monitoring native vegetation on a dumpsite of PCB-contaminated soil. International Journal of Phytoremediation 9,(1-3), 71- 78

Renzhong W, Ripley EA (1997) Effects of grazing on a Leymus chinensis grassland on the Songnen plain of north-eastern China. Journal of Arid Environments 36, 307-318

Salonen V, Setala H (1992) Plant colonization of bare peat surface – relative importance of seed availability and soil. Ecography 15(2), 199-204

Samecka-Cymerman A, Kempers AJ (2001) Concentrations of heavy metals and plant nutrients in water, sediments and aquatic macrophytes of anthropogenic lakes (former open cut brown coal mines) differing in stage of acidification. Science of the Total Environment 281, 87-98

Saunders G, Coman B, Kinnear J, Braysher M (1995) Managing vertebrate pests: foxes. CSIRO, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at http://affashop.gov.au/PdfFiles/foxguide.pdf (verified 6 May 2008)

Somadi I, Viragh K, Aszalos (2004) The effect of the abandonment of grazing on the mosaic of vegetation patches in a temperate grassland area in Hungary. Ecological Complexity 1(2), 177-189

Somadi I, Viragh K, Podani J (2008) The effect of the expansion of the clonal grass Calamagrostis epigejos on the species turnover of a semi-arid grassland. Applied Vegetation Science 11, 187-192

Sutic DD, Ford RE, Tosic MT (1999) Handbook of Plant Virus Diseases. CRC Press.

Sykora KV, Boosten A, de Bonte AJ, van der Hagen HGJM (1999) Vegetation development influenced by grazing in the coastal dunes near The Hague, The Netherlands. Journal of Coastal Conservation 5(1), 59

Teeri T, Lokki ASJ (1984) Chloroplast DNA from Calamagrostis species by selective lysis of organelles. Hereditas 101(1), 123-126

Tosserams M, Rozema J (1995) Effects of ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B) on growth and physiology of the dune grassland species Calamagrostis epigeios. Environmental Pollution 89 (2), 209-214

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2008) PLANTS Profile, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plants Database; Calamagrostis epigeios. Available at
http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CAEP# (verified 30 April 2008)

Van Bodegom PM, Sorrell BK, Oosthoek A, Bakker C, Aerts R (2008) Separating the effects of partial submergence and soil oxygen demand on plant physiology. Ecology 89(1), 193-204

Van den Berg LJL, Tomassen HBM, Roelofs JGM, Bobbink R (2005) Effects of nitrogen enrichment on coastal dune grassland: A mesocosm study. Environmental Pollution 138(1), 77-85

Wang RZ (2004) Plant functional types and their ecological responses to salinization in saline grasslands, Northeastern China. Photosynthetica 42(4), 511-519

Weeds CRC (2008) Calamagrostis epigeios. Available at http://weeds.cbit.uq.edu.au/search.aspx (verified 6 May 2008)

Williams K, Parer I, Coman B, Burley J, Braysher M (1995) Managing vertebrate pests: rabbits. CSIRO, Commonwealth of Australia. Available at http://www.ddmrb.org.au/Files/Managing%20Vertebrate%20Pests.%20%20Rabbits.pdf (verified 6 May 2008)

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2008) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 16 May 2008).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2008) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 16 May 2008).

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2008) w3TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database, Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (viewed 16 May 2008).

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