Corn daisy (Glebionis segetum)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Glebionis segetum (L.) Fourr.
Common name(s):	corn daisy

This weed is not known to be naturalised in Victoria

Habitat:

Coastal areas, sea bluffs (Jepson 2008). Prefers sandy, loamy and clay soils and requires well-drained acid and neutral soils; grows in full sun to semi-shade (light woodland; succeeds in ordinary garden soil, though it prefers a well-drained fertile soil, grows well in sandy soils; dislikes lime (Plants Future 1996–2008). A weed of economic importance in spring-sown wheat and barley (Frost 1982). Typically found at an altitude of 0 to 1,478 meters (ZipcodeZoo 2009).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Broadacre cropping; forestry; horticulture perennial; horticulture seasonal; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; granitic hillslopes; rocky outcrop shrubland; western plains woodland; basalt grassland; alluvial plains grassland; semi-arid woodland; alluvial plains woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest;
chenopod shrubland; chenopod mallee; hummock-grass mallee; lowan mallee; broombush whipstick

Colours indicate possibility of Glebionis segetum infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of glebionis segetum

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Annuals, 10-30(-80+) cm; stems usually 1, erect to ascending , usually branched (ZipcodeZoo 2009). Infestations frequently form fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). Low nuisance value.	ML	M
2. Reduce tourism?	Unwise to eat the leaves, especially if they are dried, since coumarin can prevent the blood from coagulating when there is a cut (Uni of Reading 2006). Infestations frequently form fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). This plant is often seen to be attractive in a garden setting. Minor effects to aesthetics and/or recreational uses.	ML	ML
3. Injurious to people?	Unwise to eat the leaves, especially if they are dried, since coumarin can prevent the blood from coagulating when there is a cut (Uni of Reading 2006). Some people have skin reactions to chrysanthemums offlorists.Twoof four persons allergic to chrysanthemums showed positive reactions to cumambrinA (Bleumink et al.1974). Mildly toxic; may cause some physiological tissues at certain times of the year.	ML	L
4. Damage to cultural sites?	Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Annuals, 10-30(-80+) cm; stems usually 1, erect to ascending , usually branched (ZipcodeZoo 2009). Little or negligible effect on aesthetics or structure of site.	L	M
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	Essentially a terrestrial species. Little or negligible effect on water flow.	L	L
6. Impact water quality?	Essentially a terrestrial species. No noticeable effects on dissolved O₂ or light levels.	L	L
7. Increase soil erosion?	Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Annuals, 10-30(-80+) cm; stems usually 1, erect to ascending , usually branched (ZipcodeZoo 2009). A hardy annual plant (Nougarède 1989). Occur in disturbed areas, trash heaps, field edges (Weakley 2007). Low probability of large scale soil movement.	L	ML
8. Reduce biomass?	Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). A hardy annual plant (Nougarède 1989). Occur in disturbed areas, trash heaps, field edges (Weakley 2007). Frequently forms fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). Direct replacement of biomass by invader.	ML	ML
9. Change fire regime?	Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80) cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Annuals, 10-30(-80+) cm; stems usually 1, erect to ascending, usually branched (ZipcodeZoo 2009). A hardy annual plant (Nougarède 1989). Frequently forms fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). As an annual that may occur in high density infestations, this plant may increase the intensity or frequency of fire. Moderate change to both frequency and intensity of fire.	MH	L
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Montane Riparian Woodland (E); CMA = East Gippsland; Bioregion = East Gippsland Uplands; H CLIMATE potential. Chrysanthemum coronaruim, a closely related plant with a similar habit, is among the plants that stand out because they have taken over our Californian natives to the largest extent (Tijuana Estuary 2010). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Chrysanthemum segetum is a moderately fast growing, hardy annual (Page and Olds 1998). Minor displacement of some dominant or indicator spp. within any one strata/layer (eg. ground cover, forbs, shrubs & trees).	ML	ML
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Damp Heathland (D); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Glenelg Plain; H CLIMATE potential. Chrysanthemum coronaruim, a closely related plant with a similar habit, is among the plants that stand out because they have taken over our Californian natives to the largest extent (Tijuana Estuary 2010). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Chrysanthemum segetum is a moderately fast growing, hardy annual (Page and Olds 1998). Minor displacement of some dominant or indicator spp. within any one strata/layer (eg. ground cover, forbs, shrubs & trees).	ML	ML
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Wet Heathland/Heathy Woodland Mosaic (LC); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Glenelg Plain; H CLIMATE potential. Chrysanthemum coronaruim, a closely related plant with a similar habit, is among the plants that stand out because they have taken over our Californian natives to the largest extent (Tijuana Estuary 2010). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Chrysanthemum segetum is a moderately fast growing, hardy annual (Page and Olds 1998). Minor displacement of some dominant or indicator spp. within any one strata/layer (eg. ground cover, forbs, shrubs & trees).	ML	ML
11. Impact on structure?	Chrysanthemum coronaruim, a closely related plant with a similar habit, is among the plants that stand out because they have taken over our Californian natives to the largest extent (Tijuana Estuary 2010). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Chrysanthemum segetum is a moderately fast growing, hardy annual (Page and Olds 1998). Minor effect on 20–60% of floral strata.	ML	ML
12. Effect on threatened flora?	Chrysanthemum coronaruim, a closely related plant with a similar habit, is among the plants that stand out because they have taken over our Californian natives to the largest extent (Tijuana Estuary 2010). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80) cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). A hardy annual plant (Nougarède 1989) Chrysanthemum segetum is a moderately fast growing annual (Page and Olds 1998). Occurs in disturbed areas, trash heaps, field edges (Weakley 2007). Frequently forms fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). Taking these points into consideration, C. segetum may affect the establishment of some threatened flora. Any population of a VROT spp. is reduced.	ML	ML
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Impact on threatened fauna has not yet been determined.	MH	L
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	Impact on non-threatened fauna has not yet been determined.	M	L
15. Benefits fauna?	Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80) cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Annuals, 10-30(-80+) cm; stems usually 1, erect to ascending, usually branched (ZipcodeZoo 2009). Frequently forms fairly dense stands. Seeds are eaten by several birds (Howarth and Williams 1972). Otherwise, impact on threatened fauna has not yet been determined. Provides very little support to desirable species.	H	ML
16. Injurious to fauna?	Pyrethrins are naturally released from Chrysanthemum flowers but the quantities released are very small compared to the amount in commercial products. Pyrethrins display relatively low acute mammalian and avian toxicity. Animal studies associate mortality with only relatively high oral exposures of pyrethrins (Gunasekara 2004). Otherwise, investigation into this plant indicates that it does not possess any characteristics that are injurious to fauna. Mildly toxic; may cause fauna to lose condition.	ML	L
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	Pyrethrins are naturally released from Chrysanthemum flowers but the quantities released are very small compared to the amount in commercial products. Pyrethrins display relatively low acute mammalian and avian toxicity. Animal studies associate mortality with only relatively high oral exposures of pyrethrins (Gunasekara 2004). The flowers are pollinated by bees, flies, beetles, Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies) (Plants Future 1996–2008). Seeds are eaten by several birds (Howarth and Williams 1972). Provides minimal food source for pest animals.	L	M
18. Provides harbour?	C. segetum frequently forms fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80) cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). No specific text information found. Based on images available, dense populations are likely to provide temporary harbour for small mammals. Capacity to harbour rabbits or foxes at low densities or as overnight cover.	MH	L
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	C. segetum can be a weed of economic importance in spring-sown wheat and barley, particularly in light loam or sandy soils (Frost 1982). C. segetum is a weed in pastures and arable land (both root crops and cereals, especially barley), and infestations frequently form fairly dense stands. (Howarth and Williams 1972). Otherwise no specific text information found. Based on images available, dense populations are likely to impact yield of depauperate natural pasture. Minor impact on quantity of produce, e.g. <5% reduction.	ML	MH
20. Impact quality?	An important weed in cereals, and presents a severe hazard to drying crops due to its semi-succulent nature (Howarth and Williams 1972). Potential seed contaminant (USDA 2010). C. segetum can be a weed of economic importance in spring-sown wheat and barley, particularly in light loam or sandy soils (Frost 1982). Major impact on quality of produce, e.g. 5–20%.	MH	H
21. Affect land value?	C. segetum is a weed in pastures, arable land (both root crops and cereals, especially barley), and of disturbed sites and railway sidings. Infestations frequently form fairly dense stands. (Howarth and Williams 1972). Results indicate that, as a control measure, planting a weedy arable field to grass for 20 years will not eradicate the seeds of even the most rapidly declining species, e.g. C. segetum (Chancellor 1986). Decreases the land value by <10%.	M	H
22. Change land use?	C. segetum is a weed in pastures, arable land (both root crops and cereals, especially barley). Infestations frequently form fairly dense stands (Howarth and Williams 1972). Potential seed contaminant (USDA 2010). Some change, but no serious alteration of agricultural return.	ML	H
23. Increase harvest costs?	C. segetum is an important weed in cereals, and presents a severe hazard to the drying of crops due to its semi-succulent nature (Howarth and Williams 1972). Minor increase in cost of harvesting, e.g. slightly more time or labour is required.	M	H
24. Disease host/vector?	C. segetum is a host of beet mild yellowing virus (BMYV) and beet western yellows viruses (BWYV) (Stevens et al. 1994). Chrysanthemum segetum is among the plants that can be infested with Aster Yellows; a microorganism intermediate between bacteria and viruses (O’Mara et al. 1993). Host to major and severe disease or pest of important agricultural produce.	H	H

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Optimum temperature range for germination is 4–20°C (Howarth and Williams 1972). Seed sown in spring. The seed usually germinates within 10 - 18 days at 15°c. Autumn sowings succeed in mild areas (Plants Future 1996–2008). Propagated quite rapidly by stem and shoot tip cuttings (Toshio 1974). Chrysanthemum is given as an example of a plant that can reproduce by suckering, giving rise to an aerial shoot (Rajan 1999). Maximum germination found only when light was present (Nougarède 1989). Requires natural seasonal disturbances.	MH	L
2. Establishment requirements?	The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid and neutral soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires moist soil. Succeeds in ordinary garden soil, though it prefers a well-drained fertile soil in full sun. Grows well in sandy soils. Dislikes lime (Plants Future 1996–2008). Propagated quite rapidly by stem and shoot tip cuttings (Toshio 1974). Florists’ chrysanthemums “prefer a heavier, richer soil, and will tolerate some shade.” (Kirsten 2004). Occurs in disturbed areas, trash heaps, field edges (Weakley 2007). Requires more specific requirements to establish, e.g. open ground or bare space with access to light.	ML	M
3. How much disturbance is required?	Corn daisy occurs in disturbed areas only (Randall and Hoshovsky 2006). Occurs in disturbed areas, trash heaps, field edges (Weakley 2007). Members of Asteraceae are colonisers of bare ground (Richardson et al. 2006). Establishes in highly disturbed natural ecosystems or in overgrazed pastures/poorly growing or patchy crops.	ML	M
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	The plant may reach a height of 1 m with many branches, and may produce more than 3000 fruits (Howarth and Williams 1972). Fleshy annual or overwintering biennial. Stems 20-60(-80)cm, simple or branched (Uni of Reading 2006). Annuals, 10-30(-80+) cm; stems usually 1, erect to ascending , usually branched (ZipcodeZoo 2009). A hardy annual plant (Nougarède 1989). Other.	L	MH
5. Allelopathic properties?	For the closely related Chrysanthemum morifolium, aqueous extracts obtained from young green tops inhibited the germination of six flowering plants, including chrysanthemum itself. Moreover, the growth of seedlings planted again in garden soil which was once used for the culture of chrysanthemum was greatly interrupted. These results may be considered to indicate allelopathic effects (Kil and Lee 1987). Allelopathic properties seriously affecting some plants.	MH	H
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	C. segetum has been observed being grazed by cattle and horses, and eaten by fowl. Grazing produced vigorous branching (Howarth and Williams 1972). Consumed but recovers quickly; capable of flowering/seed production under moderate herbivory pressure.	MH	H
7. Normal growth rate?	Chrysanthemum segetum is a moderately fast growing annual (Page and Olds 1998). Chrysanthemum has a moderate to fast growth rate, and prefers a sunny position (Perry 2010). Moderately rapid growth rate that will equal competitive species of the same life form.	MH	ML
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	C. segetum is killed by frost, but survives drought well, particularly in sandy places (Howarth and Williams 1972). Chrysanthemum can be grown over a wide range of salt concentrations when using nutrient film culture. The growth was not severely affected by increasing the total salt concentration to twice that of a normal concentration (Gislerod and Selmer-Olsen 1980). Salt applications had a deleterious effect on the development of flower crops used in the investigation. Carnations and chrysanthemums proved to be the least sensitive (Sonneveldand Voogt 1983). Chrysanthemum balsamita and C. parthenium are normally frost hardy in mountains, piedmont, and coastal plain (Blue et al. 1999) . The presence of certain enzymes in Chrysanthemum may be predictive of waterlogging tolerance (Yin et al. 2009). Tolerant to at least two stresses, and susceptible to at least one.	ML	L
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Chrysanthemum is given as an example of a plant that can reproduce by suckering, giving rise to an aerial shoot (Rajan 1999). Annual species of Chrysanthemum are raised from seed (Kirsten 2004). Chrysanthemum can be propagated by seed but due to the heterozygosity, vegetative propagation (cuttings, suckers) is preferred for commercial purposes (Datta et al. 2001). Propagated quite rapidly by stem and shoot tip cuttings (Toshio 1974). The garden chrysanthemum C. morifolium is normally self-incompatible, however self compatibility does occur rarely (Ronald and Ascher 1975). The flowers are hermaphrodite and the plant is self-fertile (Plants Future 1996–2008). Sexual (self and cross pollination).	MH	ML
10. Number of propagules produced?	C. segetum may reach a height of 1 m with many branches, and may produce more than 3000 fruits (Howarth and Williams 1972). Based on images available, it is estimated that each plant would produce more than 2000 propagules.	H	H
11. Propagule longevity?	Seeds of C. segetum may remain dormant in the soil for a maximum of 15 years (Howarth and Williams 1972). C. segetum seeds were among the group that declined most rapidly, with mean annual declines of over 30% per year. Results indicate that planting a weedy arable field to grass for 20 years will not eradicate the seeds of even the most rapidly declining species (Chancellor 1986). There was a progressive decline in number of viable seeds over a 16 year period (Roberts and Neilson 1981). Storage life of seeds of Chrysanthemum, if maintained under ideal storage conditions, is greater than three years (McDonald 2005). Greater than 25% of seeds survive 10–20 years in the soil.	MH	H
12. Reproductive period?	The plant germinates in spring (March–May) and flowers in June–August (Howarth and Williams 1972). Annual; in flower from June to August; seeds ripen from July to September (Plants Future 1996–2008). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial (Uni of Reading 2006). Glebionis segetum, a dicot, is an annual herb (Calflora 2010). Mature plant produces viable propagules for only 1–2 years.	ML	MH
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	Annual; in flower from June to August; seeds ripen from July to September (Plants Future 1996–2008). Fleshy annual or over wintering biennial (Uni of Reading 2006). Glebionis segetum, a dicot, is an annual herb (Calflora 2010). Produces propagules between 1–2 years after germination.	MH	MH
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Fruits may be dispersed in dung (cattle or horses), or in bird droppings and [as a contaminant] with crop seeds. Winged fruits may float on water for nearly two days, and can be dispersed in this way (Howarth and Williams 1972). Sepals are absent in chrysanthemum, butinstead a pappus is formed, which can be regarded as a rudimentarysepal (Shchennikova 2004), i.e. presence of pappi indicates wind dispersal. Agriculture led to range expansion by plants including Chrysanthemum segetum (Cousens and Mortimer 1995). Propagules light, wind dispersed seeds.	H	H
15. How far do they disperse?	C. segetum has been observed being grazed by cattle and horses, and eaten by fowl. Seeds survive in the dung (Howarth and Williams 1972). Agriculture led to range expansion by plants including Chrysanthemum segetum (Cousens and Mortimer 1995). Sepals are absent in chrysanthemum, butinstead a pappus is formed, which can be regarded as a rudimentarysepal (Shchennikova 2004), i.e. presence of pappi indicates wind dispersal. Very likely that at least one propagule will disperse greater than one kilometre.	H	H

References

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Uni of Reading (2006) University of Reading. Mediterranean Plants Identification & Distribution, Glebionis segetum page. Available at
http://www.herbarium.rdg.ac.uk/mediplants/resultd.asp?SP=Glebionis%20segetum (verified 27 April 2010).

Unsicker SB, Kunert G and Gershenzon J. (2009) Protective perfumes: the role of vegetative volatiles in plant defense against herbivores. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 12(4): 479–485. Available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VS4-4WB60SK-1&_user=141304&_coverDate=08%2F31%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1313987643&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000011678&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=141304&md5=bd3fdabfa119245caa8bacfba1f9e320 (verified 27 April 2010).

USDA (2010) Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plants Profile, Glebionis segetum page. Available at
http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=Glebionis+segetum&mode=sciname&submit.x=16&submit.y=8 (verified 11 May 2010).

Weakley AS. (2007) Flora of the Carolinas, Virginia, Georgia, and surrounding areas. University of North Carolina Herbarium (NCU), North Carolina Botanical Garden, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Available at http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/WeakleysFloraPart2.pdf (verified 27 April 2010).

Yin D, Chen S, Chen F, Guan Z and Fang W. (2009) Morphological and physiological responses of two chrysanthemum cultivars differing in their tolerance to waterlogging. Environmental and Experimental Botany 67(1): 87–93. Available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T66-4WK48B2-1&_user=141304&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F2009&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000011678&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=141304&md5=438719d667c6ccd333a21a1c5f88169c (verified 27 April 2010).

ZipcodeZoo (2009) Glebionis segetum page. Available at http://zipcodezoo.com/Plants/G/Glebionis_segetum/ (verified Jan 2010).

Global present distribution data references

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI) http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified 16 March 2010).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2010) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 11 May 2010).

Integrated Taxonomic Information System. (2010) Available at http://www.itis.gov/ (verified 16 March 2010).

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG) (2010) w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database, Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (verified 9 March 2010).

Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne. (2003) Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria. Available at http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/research_and_conservation/plant_information/viclist (verified 11 May 2010).

United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Service, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) [Online Database]. Taxonomy Query. (2009) Available at http://pick1.pick.uga.edu/mp/20q?go=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl%3F417418 (verified 16 March 2010).

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