Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum arabicum)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Ornithogalum arabicum L.
Common name(s):	Star of Bethlehem

This weed is not known to be naturalised in Victoria

Habitat:

It thrives on the most barren sands and rocky soils…A good choice for seaside gardens (Ogden 2007). Occasional along roadsides near settlements in the south-west (Hussey et al. 1997; Paczkowska 194). Occasionally escapes gardens into crops, bushlands and roadsides (Richardson et al. 2006). Most European species tolerate moderate frost, whereas South African species are frost tender (Gardening Australia 2009). Adaptable to most soils and positions, drought and frost tender. (Bodkin 1986). “It is far more tolerant of cold winters and hot summers [in eastern regions, compared to O. saundersiae]” (Armitage and Laushmann 2003).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Horticulture perennial; horticulture seasonal; pasture dryland;

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; granitic hillslopes; rocky outcrop shrubland.

Colours indicate possibility of Ornithogalum arabicum infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). - Low nuisance value. Impedes individual access; unable to walk to waterways.	ML	M
2. Reduce tourism?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). All parts of the plant are poisonous, and contact with the sap may cause skin rashes (Gardening Australia 2009). - Minor effects to aesthetics and/or recreational uses.	ML	M
3. Injurious to people?	All parts of the plant are poisonous, and contact with the sap may cause skin rashes (Gardening Australia 2009). - Toxic, can cause allergies to humans throughout the year.	H	M
4. Damage to cultural sites?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). - Moderate visual effect.	ML	M
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	Ornithogalum arabicum is not an aquatic weed. Unlikely to impact water flows. - Little or negligible impact on water flow.	L	M
6. Impact water quality?	Ornithagalum arabicum is not an aquatic weed. Unlikely to impact water quality. - No noticeable effect on dissolved O2 or light levels.	L	M
7. Increase soil erosion?	Bulbaceous perennial herb (Paczkowska 1994). They thrive on the most barren sands and rocky soils (Ogden 2007). Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). - Moderate probability of large scale soil movement.	ML	M
8. Reduce biomass?	They thrive on the most barren sands and rocky soils (Ogden 2007). Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). There is no evidence that Ornithogalum arabicum will outcompete other species, therefore biomass is unlikely to decrease. - Biomass may increase.	L	M
9. Change fire regime?	No information.	M	L
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Semi-Arid Woodland (V); CMA = Mallee; Bioregion = Murray Mallee; VH CLIMATE potential. - Minor displacement of some dominant or indicator species within any one layer/strata.	ML	H
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Heathy Herb-Rich Woodland (D); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Glenelg Plain; VH CLIMATE potential. - Minor displacement of some dominant or indicator species within any one layer/strata.	ML	H
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Shrubby Damp Forest (LC); CMA = East Gippsland; Bioregion = East Gippsland Uplands; VH CLIMATE potential. - Minor displacement of some dominant or indicator species within any one layer/strata.	ML	H
11. Impact on structure?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). - Minor effects to <20% of the floral strata/layers present; usually only affecting one of the strata.	L	ML
12. Effect on threatened flora?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). Impacts on threatened flora are undetermined.	MH	L
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). Impacts on threatened fauna are undetermined.	MH	L
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). - No fauna affected due to fauna not coexisting within weed area or strata.	L	ML
15. Benefits fauna?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). - Provides very little support for desirable species.	H	ML
16. Injurious to fauna?	All parts of the plant are poisonous, and contact with the sap may cause skin rashes (Gardening Australia 2009). - Toxic, and or causes allergies.	H	ML
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	All parts of the plant are poisonous, and contact with the sap may cause skin rashes (Gardening Australia 2009). - Provides minimal food for pest animals.	L	ML
18. Provides harbor?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). - No harbour for pest species.	L	ML
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). Not known as an agricultural weed, but clumps of Ornithogalum arabicum may exclude some pasture species, and compete for resources. - Little or no impact on quantity of yield.	L	ML
20. Impact quality?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). Not known as an agricultural weed Ornithogalum arabicum is unlikely to impact the quality of agricultural produce. - Little or no impact on the quality of yield.	L	ML
21. Affect land value?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). Not known as an agricultural weed, but clumps of Ornithogalum arabicum may exclude some pasture species, and compete for resources; potential land value reduction. - Decrease in land value <10%	ML	ML
22. Change land use?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). Not an aggressive spreader (MOBOT 2001-2009). Not known to be invasive to agricultural land, Ornithogalum arabicum would be unlikely to instigate a change in land use. - Little or no change.	L	ML
23. Increase harvest costs?	Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap like leaves (Gardening Australia 2009). Height of plant can reach 15-30 cm; spread can reach 30-45 cm (Dave’s Garden 2000-2009; Desert Tropicals 1995). This species is not known to be invasive to agriculture, however size and spread of the plant have the potential to somewhat increase harvesting time and costs, as dense clumps may be difficult to remove. - Minor increase in harvesting e.g. slightly more time or labour required.	ML	ML
24. Disease host/vector?	All parts of the plant are poisonous, and contact with the sap may cause skin rashes (Gardening Australia 2009). - Toxic, and or causes allergies.	H	L

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Adaptable to most soils and positions. (Bodkin 1986). Plants do not like heavy moisture from late summer rains (MOBOT 2009). -Requires natural seasonal disturbances.	MH	MH
2. Establishment requirements?	Adaptable to most soils and positions. (Bodkin 1986). They thrive on the most barren sands and rocky soils (Ogden 2007). - Requires more specific requirements to establish (e.g. open space, bare ground etc.).	ML	MH
3. How much disturbance is required?	Occasional along roadsides near settlements in the south-west (Hussey et al. 1997; Paczkowska 194). They thrive on the most barren sands and rocky soils (Ogden 2007). Occasionally escapes gardens into crops, bushlands and roadsides (Richardson et al. 2006). - Establishes in highly disturbed ecosystems (e.g. roadsides, wildlife corridors, or areas which have had a greater impact by humans such as tourist sites).	ML	MH
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	Bulb (MOBOT 2001-2009). - Geophyte	ML	MH
5. Allelopathic properties?	None documented (Rice 1984). - None.	L	MH
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	“Very hardy and pest resistant” (Garden Express 2009). Not enough information.	M	L
7. Normal growth rate?	Not an aggressive spreader (MOBOT 2001-2009). “Ornithogalum species quickly form large clumps of grassy to strap-like leaves” “Most species multiply rapidly” (Gardening Australia 2009). Single bulbs will make clumps up to 30 cm across over a few years (Garden express 2009). - Growth rate equal to the same life forms.	M	M
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	They thrive on the most barren sands and rocky soils…a good choice for seaside gardens (Ogden 2007). Most European species tolerate moderate frost, whereas South African species are frost tender (Gardening Australia 2009). Adaptable to most soils and positions, drought and frost tender. (Bodkin 1986). “it is far more tolerant of cold winters and hot summers [in eastern regions, compared to O. saundersiae]” (Armitage and Laushmann 2003). - Tolerant of at least two, susceptible to at least one.	ML	M
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Propagation is by division (Bodkin 1986). - Vegetative and sexual reproduction.	H	MH
10. Number of propagules produced?	Numerous seeds (Flora of North America). Not enough information.	M	L
11. Propagule longevity?	“Can be left undisturbed for many years (Garden express 2009). Unknown.	M	L
12. Reproductive period?	Perennial (Lazarides et al. 1997). - Mature plant produces viable propagules for 3-10years.	MH	M
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	Perennial (Lazarides et al. 1997). -Two to five years to reach sexual maturity, or for vegetative propagules to become separate individuals.	ML	M
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Dispersal mechanisms are unknown.	M	L
15. How far do they disperse?	Dispersal distance is unknown.	M	L

References

Armitage AM, Laushmann JM (2003) Specialty cut flowers: the production of annuals, perennials, bulbs and woody plants for fresh and dried flowers. Timber Press.

Bodkin F. (1986) Encyclopaedia Botanica: The Essential Reference Guide to Native and Exotic Plants in Australia. Angus & Robertson.

Dave’s Garden (2000-2009). Available at http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/64492/ (verified 07 May 2009).

Desert Tropicals (2005). Available at http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Liliaceae/Ornithogalum_arabicum.html (verified 07 May 2009).

eFloras Flora of North America (undated) Genus Ornithogalu. Available at http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=123199 (verified 07 May 2009).

Gardening Australia (2009). Available at http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s1866762.htm (verified 07 May 2009).

Garden express (2008). Available at http://www.gardenexpress.com.au/growing_guide/o_arabicum/o_arabicum.html (verified 07 May 2009).

Hussey BMJ, Keighery GJ, Cousens RD, Dodd J and Lloyd SG. (1997) Western Weeds. A Guide to the Weeds of Western Australia. The Plant Protection Society of Western Australia Inc. Victoria Park.

Lazarides M, Cowley K and Hohnen P (1997) CSIRO Handbook of Australian Weeds. Published by CSIRO.

Missouri Botanical Garden. Available at http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/Plant.asp?code=A466 (verified 07 May 2009).

Ogden S (2007) Garden Bulbs for the South. Timber Press.

Paczkowska G (1994) Ornithogalum arabicum L. in FloraBase the Western Australian Flora. Available at http://florabase.calm.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/1372 (verified 07 May 2009).

Rice EL. (1984) Allelopathy. Academic Press, Inc. Orlando.

Richardson FJ, Richardson RG and Shepherd RCH. (2006) Weeds of the South-east. An Identification Guide for Australia. RG & FJ Richardson. MeredithMOBOT (2001-2009)

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research. (2008) Available at http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 07 May 2009).

Department of the Environment and Heritage (Commonwealth of Australia). (1993 – On-going) Australian Plant Name Index (APNI) http://www.cpbr.gov.au/apni/index.html (verified 07 May 2009).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). (2008) Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 07 May 2009).

Missouri Botanical Gardens (MBG). w³TROPICOS, Missouri Botanical Gardens Database. (2009) Available at http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html (verified 07 May 2009).

Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne. (2003) Census of Vascular Plants of Victoria. Available at http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/research_and_conservation/plant_information/viclist (verified 07 May 2009).

United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Research Service, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) [Online Database]. Taxonomy Query. (2009) Available at http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxgenform.pl (verified 07 May 2009).

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