Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica cv. Green Goddess)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. cv. ‘Green Goddess
Common name(s):	Arum lily, Green Goddess

Map showing the present distribution of this weed.

Habitat:
Note: The cultivar ‘Green Goddess’ is very similar to the species Z. aethiopica but with green flowers, however, its tolerances appear to be wider (NZPCN 2005) & it is described as having the same weed potential (WWF 2005), but is taller & more robust (Wallis 2005). Green Goddess is able to establish in a wide range of habitats from wetlands & forests, to sand dunes (DOC 2005)’. Z. aethiopica occurs as a weed in gullies, irrigation ditches, wet pastures, rubbish dumps (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001), winter waterlogged areas, marshes (Moore 1997), swamps, creeks, seeps, springs (Keighery 1997), dry coastal & riparian vegetation, temporary & permanent freshwater wetlands, warm temperate rainforest (Carr et al) & grasslands (Weber 2003). In WA, also occurs in pine plantations (Armstrong 1997), coastal shrublands, Karri forest (Keighery 1997), Melaleuca & Eucalyptus woodlands, Juncus sedgelands, limestone heath, Acacia shrubland, coastal forest, open shrubland communities & on swales & dune slopes on highly alkaline sand (Wykes 1997). In Kenya occurs in wet marshy places to 2300m (UCONN 2007).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Forest private plantation; forest public plantation; pasture dryland; pasture
irrigation.

Broad vegetation types
Coastal scrubs and grassland; coastal grassy woodland; heathy woodland; lowland forest; heath; swamp scrub; sedge rich woodland; moist foothills forest; montane moist forest; grassland; plains grassy woodland; valley grassy forest; herb-rich woodland; montane grassy woodland; riverine grassy woodland; riparian forest; Aquatic areas including; Riparian Strip, 10m Rivers, 5m Creeks; Shallow wetlands excluding permanently saline

Colours indicate possibility of Zantedeschia aethiopica cv. ‘Green Goddess infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	Note: The cultivar ‘Green Goddess’ is very similar to the species Z. aethiopica but with green flowers, and is described as having the same weed potential (WWF 2005). However, its tolerances appear to be wider (NZPCN 2005) and it is described as being taller and more robust (Wallis 2005). ‘It does appear to be more aquatic (emergent to marginal), taller and more invasive in NZ wetlands than the white flowered plants (pers. com. Paul Champion 2007)’. Green Goddess forms dense infestations to 1.5 m high growing in and around aquatic areas (DOC 2005). Could impede individual access to waterways.	ML	MH
2. Reduce tourism?	No information was found to suggest that this species would lead to a decrease in tourism, but, as a visually distinctive species it is likely to have a minor affect on the aesthetics of an area.	ML	M
3. Injurious to people?	Children have been fatally poisoned after eating the white spathe or yellow spadix of the flowers (Moore 1997) and there are also a number of overseas reports of children poisoned as a result of eating the seeds and berries (APB 1986). Symptoms include severe burning and swelling of lips, tongue, and throat, acute gastritis and diarrhoea followed by death from shock and exhaustion (Russell 1997, Moore 1997). Extremely toxic.	H	MH
4. Damage to cultural sites?	No information was found to suggest that this species would impact on cultural sites or infrastructure.	L	M
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	‘It does appear to be more aquatic (emergent to marginal), taller and more invasive in NZ wetlands than the white flowered plants (pers. com. Paul Champion)’. It occurs in flowing water (NZPCN 2005) and is described as impeding water flow (Blood 2001) and while it has the potential to have major impacts to both surface and subsurface flow, its impacts are not likely to be very serious as it grows only in shallower aquatic habitats.	MH	MH
6. Impact water quality?	It has the potential to impact on light levels in aquatic habitats due to its densely growing habit (DOC 2005), however these impacts are likely to be relatively minor as it grows primarily in the shallower water or margins of waterways (Blood 2001, pers. com Paul Champion 2007).	ML	M
7. Increase soil erosion?	‘We have recorded up to 250t/ha of rhizomes under old arum lily stands (Moore & Hoskins 1997)’. Unlikely to increase, and may decrease soil erosion due to its dense rhizome system.	L	M
8. Reduce biomass?	Forms dense infestations to 1.5 m high (DOC 2005) and up to 250t/ha of rhizomes have been recorded under stands of Z. aethiopica (Moore & Hoskins 1997). It has the potential to increase the vegetative biomass of a community.	L	M
9. Change fire regime?	On Eclipse island WA it is forming monospecific stands and replacing a Carpobrotus virescens dominated low open heath (Keighery 1997). Heath ecosystems are adapted to fire (Groves 1994) and the succulent nature of Z. aethiopica foliage may lead to a reduction in fire frequency and intensity.	MH	ML
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	It is documented as forming dense monocultures (Keighery 1997, Wykes 1997) and as completely displacing the native vegetation (Weber 2003). Green Goddess will form dense stands, excluding other species with the potential to completely modify wetlands and threaten the already endangered wetland flora (DOC 2005). Forms monocultures; can displace all species within the understorey layer.	H	MH
(b) medium value EVC	It is documented as forming dense monocultures (Keighery 1997, Wykes 1997) and as completely displacing the native vegetation (Weber 2003). Green Goddess will form dense stands, excluding other species with the potential to completely modify wetlands and threaten the already endangered wetland flora (DOC 2005). Forms monocultures; can displace all species within the understorey layer.	H	MH
(c) low value EVC	It is documented as forming dense monocultures (Keighery 1997, Wykes 1997) and as completely displacing the native vegetation (Weber 2003). Green Goddess will form dense stands, excluding other species with the potential to completely modify wetlands and threaten the already endangered wetland flora (DOC 2005). Forms monocultures; can displace all species within the understorey layer.	H	MH
11. Impact on structure?	‘Smothers ground layer preventing regeneration of natural flora (EBOP 2007). Forms monocultures (Keighery 1997, Wykes 1997) and can completely displace the native vegetation (Weber 2003). Green Goddess forms dense stands, excluding other species with the potential to completely modify wetlands and threaten the already endangered wetland flora (DOC 2005). Major affect on <60% (understorey) of floral strata.	H	MH
12. Effect on threatened flora?	Green Goddess is described as forming dense stands, excluding other species with the potential to completely modify wetlands and threaten the already endangered wetland flora (DOC 2005), however, its threat to specific species was not found documented.	MH	ML
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Its invasion and formation of dense monocultures on Garden island, WA has been labelled as an ‘ecological disaster’ due to its potential impact on the population of the endangered Tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii) through reduction in habitat and food supply (Wykes 1997)’. Although it has the capacity to reduce habitat, the Tammar wallaby does not occur in Victoria, and no information was found documented of its impact on similar Victorian threatened fauna.	MH	ML
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	As well as the Tammar wallaby, its invasion on Garden Island is also described as impacting on reptile species through reduction in habitat and food supply (Wykes 1997)’. Reduction in habitat for fauna leading to reduction in numbers of individuals.	MH	M
15. Benefits fauna?	Singing honeyeater, grey butcherbird and silvereye are all known to feed on the fruits (Wykes 1997). Provides some assistance with food supply to desirable species.	MH	MH
16. Injurious to fauna?	‘All Zantedeschia species are considered extremely poisonous to all animals (Blood 2001)’. Toxic.	H	MH
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	‘Foxes and stock consume the seed and also aid dispersal (Blood 2001, Moore 1997)’. Provides food to one serious pest species.	MH	M
18. Provides harbor?	Rabbits are documented as the likely cause of the severe Z. aethiopica invasion on Eclipse Island (Keighery 1997), and although the reason for the increase is not stated, it may be the result of soil disturbance due to warren construction under stands of Z. aethiopica. Its habit of forming dense monoculture to 1.5m high also gives it the capacity to harbour pest animals, such as rabbits, however, nothing was found described in the literature so a medium rating has been assigned.	M	ML
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	Dense infestations completely replace pasture species, reducing the available grazing area and, hence, pasture productivity, and it is known to cause stock deaths (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001). Potential for greater than 5%, reduction in quantity of produce.	MH	ML
20. Impact quality?	The toxic nature of the plant (Blood 2001) has the potential to impact on stock health, however, nothing was found described to suggest this would affect quality of the agricultural product.	L	ML
21. Affect land value?	‘It’s not really a big agricultural problem because it’s quite easily managed… (Grieve & Atkins 2006)’. If it is able to be controlled with good farm management practises it is unlikely to affect land value.	L	ML
22. Change land use?	‘It’s not really a big agricultural problem because it’s quite easily managed… (Grieve & Atkins 2006)’. However, its toxicity to stock and ability to reduce pasture productivity has the potential to result in some change of land use, though nothing was found specifically documented.	M	L
23. Increase harvest costs?	Its high toxicity and ability to cause stock deaths (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001), could lead to a minor increased in the cost of production as a result of increased veterinary expenses.	M	MH
24. Disease host/vector?	Can be infected with Cucumber mosaic virus and tomato spotted wilt virus (Griffiths 1992). Potential host of common agricultural diseases.	M	M

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Note: The cultivar ‘Green Goddess’ is very similar to the species Z. aethiopica but with green flowers, and is described as having the same weed potential (WWF 2005). However, its tolerances appear to be wider (NZPCN 2005) and it is described as being taller and more robust (Wallis 2005). ‘It does appear to be more aquatic (emergent to marginal), taller and more invasive in NZ wetlands than the white flowered plants (pers. com. Paul Champion 2007)’. Seeds germinate in late Autumn to Winter and germination is best at temperatures of between 15-20^oC (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001). Requires natural seasonal disturbances for germination.	MH	MH
2. Establishment requirements?	‘It will grow in deep shade as well as full sunlight (DOC 2005)’. Able to establish under a moderate canopy.	MH	MH
3. How much disturbance is required?	‘…able to establish in a wide range of habitats from wetlands and forests, to sand dunes (DOC 2005)’. Establishes in relatively intact natural ecosystems.	MH	MH
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	Can grow in water up to 30cm deep (Burnie et al 1998) and occurs in permanent wetlands (Carr et al 1992). ‘It [Green Goddess] does appear to be more aquatic (emergent to marginal), taller and more invasive in NZ wetlands than the white flowered plants (pers. com. Paul Champion 2007)’.	H	MH
5. Allelopathic properties?	No allelopathic properties described.	L	L
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	‘The plant being very toxic is not grazed by feral or native herbivores once it has become established (Keighery 1997)’. ‘Poisonous to stock but rarely touched by animals (Roy et al 1998)’.	H	M
7. Normal growth rate?	‘Seedling growth is slow at first (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001)’. However it is also documented that plants from rhizomes grow vigorously (Moore & Hoskins 1997) and that it out competes and completely displace the native vegetation (Keighery 1997, Weber 2003)’.	MH	M
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	Re-sprouts following moderate burns (Wykes 1997), can tolerate salt, and frost to -10^oC for several days a year (Blood 2001) and in permanent water up to 30cm deep (Burnie et al 1998). Drought tender (Bodkin 1990). ‘Green-Goddess has established in many wetland areas and tolerates brackish conditions (EBOP 2007, NZPCN 2005)’. ‘Capable of avoiding unfavourable conditions of either heat, cold or drought by going dormant (Plummer 1997)’. Tolerant to water logging, salt, some frost & fire, sensitive to drought but may not be affected in wetter areas.	MH	M
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Reproduces by seed and rhizome proliferation (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001).	H	MH
10. Number of propagules produced?	‘Green Goddess is a prolific seeder… (DOC 2005)’. Z. aethiopica produces about 40-50 berries per mature spadix and up to 18 seeds per fruit (Blood 2001). “50-500 seeds per flower head have been reported (Moore 1997)’. A number of flowering stems are produced on a single plant so it has the potential to produce over 2000 propagules in a season.	H	ML
11. Propagule longevity?	Seeds are short lived with few surviving beyond 4 months (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001).	L	MH
12. Reproductive period?	It is now the dominant vegetation on Eclipse island forming an almost monospecific stand covering over one third of the island (Abbott 1981 in Keighery 1997), and on Garden island has formed dense monocultures in swales and on dune slopes (Wykes 1997). Potential to form self sustaining monocultures.	H	MH
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	Its vegetative reproduction is prolific being able to produce numerous rhizomatous offsets after just 6 months of growth (Plummer 1997, Blood 2001). Offsets survive if removed from the mother plant or if the dominant rhizome is killed (Plummer 1997). Potential for vegetative propagules to become separate individuals in under a year.	H	MH
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Spread by birds, water and cultivation (Panetta 1988, Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001).	H	MH
15. How far do they disperse?	Birds have the potential to disperse seeds greater than 1 kilometre.	H	M

References

Abbott I 1981, ‘Vegetation maps of four large islands near Albany, Western Australia’, Western Australian Herbarium Research Notes, No.5, pp. 5-18.

Agriculture Protection Board (APB) 1986, ‘Plant Control Series: Arum Lily can be eliminated from pastures’, APB Weed Control Infonote, No. 6, AGDEX 647.

Armstrong R 1997, ‘Future Directions for control of Arum Lily as an environmental weed’, Proceedings of a workshop held at HMAS Stirling, Garden Island, Western Australia:

Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), CRC for Weed management Systems, Adelaide, Australia.

Blood K 2001, Environmental Weeds: A field guide for SE Australia, (CRC Weed management Systems) CH Jerram & Associates, Mt Waverley, Victoria, Australia.

Bodkin F 1990, Encyclopaedia Botanica, Angus & Robertson, North Ryde, NSW.

Burnie G, Forrester S, Greig D, Guest S et al. (1998), Botanica, Random House Australia, Milsons Point, NSW, Australia.

Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. and Robinson, K.E. 1992, Environmental weed invasions in Victoria: Conservation and management implications, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources and Ecological Horticulture, Victoria, Australia.

Department of Conservation (DOC) 2005, Plant Me Instead, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.

Environment Bay of Plenty Regional Council (EBOP) 2007, Weed Index: Zantedeschia aethiopica, viewed: 23/5/2007, http://www.ebop.govt.nz/weeds/Weed232.asp

University of Connecticut (UCONN) 2007, Araceae: Zantedeschia aethiopica Spreng. Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, EEB Plant Growth facilities, University of Connecticut, viewed: 4/6/2007, http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/acc_num/198500186.html

Grieve O & Atkins J 2006, WA says no to Green Goddess, ABC South Coast-Tuesday 30 May 2006, viewed: 22/5/2007, http://www.abc.net.au/southcoast/stories/s1649626.htm

Griffiths M 1992, The new Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gardening, Macmillan, London, UK.

Groves RH 1994, Australian Vegetation (Second Edition), University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Keighery G 1997, ‘Arum Lily as an environmental weed in Western Australia-overview of distribution and threat to natural systems’, Proceedings of a workshop held at HMAS Stirling, Garden Island, Western Australia: Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), CRC for Weed management Systems, Adelaide, Australia.

Moore JH 1997, ‘Arum Lily: a general description’, Proceedings of a workshop held at HMAS Stirling, Garden Island, Western Australia: Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), CRC for Weed management Systems, Adelaide, Australia.

Moore JH & Hoskins EB 1997, ‘Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) control in the south west of Western Australia’, Proceedings of a workshop held at HMAS Stirling, Garden Island, Western Australia: Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), CRC for Weed management Systems, Adelaide, Australia.

New Zealand Plant Conservation Network (NZPCN) 2005, Naturalised vascular plant species in NZ: Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. Cv. Green Goddess, NZPCN, viewed: 24/5/2007, http://www.nzpcn.org.nz/exotic_plant_life_and_weeds/search_results.asp

Panetta FD 1988, ‘Studies on the seed biology of arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng.)’, Plant Protection Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 4, 169-171.

Parsons W.T. & Cuthbertson E.G. 2001, Noxious weeds of Australia, 2nd ed., CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia.

Plummer JA 1997, ‘Reproductive Biology of Zantedeschia aethiopica’, Proceedings of a workshop held at HMAS Stirling, Garden Island, Western Australia: Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), CRC for Weed management Systems, Adelaide, Australia.

Roy B, Popay I, Champion P, James T & Rahman A 1998, An illustrated Guide to Common Weeds of New Zealand, New Zealand Plant Protection Society, Canterbury, New Zealand.

Russell AB Dr 1997, Poisonous Plants of North Carolina, Department of Horticultural Science, North Carolina State University. viewed (web version): 4/6/2007, http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/consumer/poison/Zanteae.htm

Wallis Creek Water Gardens (Wallis) 2005, Bog & water loving plants for shady areas, viewed: 23/5/2007, http://www.walliscreekwatergarden.com.au/bogplantshade.html

Weber E. 2003, Invasive plant species of the world: a reference guide to environmental weeds, CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.

World Wildlife Fund (WWF) 2005, Discussion Paper: The costs and benefits of a proposed mandatory invasive species labelling scheme, WWF, prepared by Australian Centre for Agriculture & Law, University of New England.

Wykes BJ 1997, ‘HMAS STIRLING Arum Lily management program’, Proceedings of a workshop held at HMAS Stirling, Garden Island, Western Australia: Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), CRC for Weed management Systems, Adelaide, Australia.

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) 2007, Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, viewed: 24/5 2007, http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/

Environment Bay of Plenty Regional Council (EBOP) 2007, viewed: 23/5/2007, http://www.ebop.govt.nz/default.asp

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