Mother of millions (Bryophyllum delagoense)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Bryophyllum delagoense (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Schinz
Common name(s):	mother of millions

Map showing the present distribution of this weed.

Habitat:

Sub-humid climate or semi arid climate. “Dry skeletal soils or rock faces, shallow stony soils in open forest country or loose sand near the seashore… May be found on a broad range of soils, from sand to heavy clay, where surface organic matter occurs… Commonly associated with… xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’… “Open eucalypt forests, brigalow (Acacia harpophylla Benth.) woodlands or Cassuarina communities… Plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes…Rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover… Appears to be frost intolerant” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “Usually in poorer soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee 2003).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Forestry; horticulture perennial; pasture dryland

Ecological Vegetation Divisions
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; granitic hillslopes; rocky outcrop shrubland; western plains woodland; semi-arid woodland; alluvial plains woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest; freshwater wetland (ephemeral); chenopod shrubland; chenopod mallee; hummock-grass mallee; lowan mallee; broombush whipstick

Colours indicate possibility of Bryophyllum delagoense infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of Bryophyllum delagoenes

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	“To 1m high, occasionally to 3m, slender with simple stems…Flowers in a corymbose cluster…salmon coloured to scarlet” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “±leafless at flowering time; 15-130mm long and 2-6mm wide; apex with 2-9 teeth” (AGIS 2008). Images accompanying information from DPI NSW (2005), DPI QLD (2008), Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003) and Hannan-Jones and Playford (2002), indicate that denser stands of this plant may be difficult to walk through or even drive a vehicle through. High nuisance value. People and/or vehicles access with difficulty.	MH	M
2. Reduce tourism?	“To 1m high, occasionally to 3m, slender with simple stems” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “±leafless at flowering time; 15-130mm long and 2-6mm wide apex with 2-9 teeth…Flowers in a corymbose cluster…salmon coloured to scarlet” (AGIS 2008). Images accompanying information from DPI NSW (2005), DPI QLD (2008), Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003) and Hannan-Jones and Playford (2002), indicate that denser stands of this plant may be difficult to walk through or even drive a vehicle through. Some recreational uses may be affected.	MH	M
3. Injurious to people?	“There was a case of severe diarrhoea in a child who ate flowers of B. delagoense” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “It is also poisonous to humans” (DPI NSW 2005). The Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003) reports that it is possibly toxic to humans, although poisoning is remote. Effects of this nature are considered to be extremely toxic and cause serious allergy for the purpose of this assessment.	H	MH
4. Damage to cultural sites?	Being unwanted garden plants B. delagoense was dumped “the result being infestations can be found… [at] old homestead sites” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee 2003). Images accompanying information from DPI NSW (2005), DPI QLD (2008), Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003) and Hannan-Jones and Playford (2002), indicate that denser stands of this plant would be unsightly. “To 1m high, occasionally to 3m … [Flowers] salmon coloured to scarlet” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Moderate visual effect at least, not enough is know about root system to indicate whether it could cause structural damage.	ML	MH
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	“When plants do grow in open areas they require a sheltered/ moist microclimate with organic matter for establishment, such as under a fallen branch or log… In Queensland and northern New South Wales, B. delagoense distinctly prefers the leaf litter within the drip/ shade zone of trees, with few plants growing in open bare areas…Bryophyllum delagoense rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). B. delagoense does not grow in aquatic situations.	L	H
6. Impact water quality?	“When plants do grow in open areas they require a sheltered/ moist microclimate with organic matter for establishment, such as under a fallen branch or log… In Queensland and northern New South Wales, B. delagoense distinctly prefers the leaf litter within the drip/ shade zone of trees, with few plants growing in open bare areas…Bryophyllum delagoense rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). B. delagoense does not grow in aquatic situations.	L	H
7. Increase soil erosion?	“Form[s] a mat of plantlets…Few plants growing in open bare areas… As the parent plant dies back post flowering” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). With such a mass die back of a mat forming plant, there is a moderate probability of large scale soil movement.	ML	M
8. Reduce biomass?	“A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum delagoense” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). It is unknown what sort of vegetation type or particular species is affected therefore effects to the biomass are unknown.	M	L
9. Change fire regime?	“A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum delagoense” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). It is unknown what sort of vegetation type or particular species is affected therefore effects to fire regime are unknown.	M	L
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Valley Gassy Forest (V); CMA = Port Phillip and Westernport; Bioregion = Central Victorian Uplands; VH CLIMATE potential. “A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum tubiflorum [= delagoense]” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008).	M	L
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Riparian Forest (D); CMA = East Gippsland; Bioregion = East Gippsland Lowlands; VH CLIMATE potential. “A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum tubiflorum [= delagoense]” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008).	M	L
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Lowland Forest (LC); CMA = East Gippsland; Bioregion = East Gippsland Lowlands; VH CLIMATE potential. “A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum tubiflorum [= delagoense]” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008).	M	L
11. Impact on structure?	“A case study of the flora changes on Lady Elliot Island, a coral cay on the Great Barrier Reef, showed ‘changes to the current vegetation structure by the widespread occurrence of...Bryophyllum tubiflorum [= delagoense]” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). According to this information there will be changes in the vegetation community but it is unknown to what exact degree.	M	L
12. Effect on threatened flora?	“At Mungle Creek, New South Wales, dense infestations of B. delagoense that originated from a garden planting, about two kilometres upstream, now interfere with regeneration of southern remnant stands of Acacia harpophylla in a flora reserve”. Control by cultivation “would not be of use in areas where…environmental values such as biodiversity, soil conservation and down catchment water quality are of concern. This is particularly the case in Queensland brigalow, which is and endangered ecosystem” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). This information suggests that infestations of B. delagoense could be of concern to Victoria’s threatened flora.	MH	L
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	“B. delagoense is of concern for its competition with native herbs and forbs which are the diet of the endangered macropod, bridled nail-tailed wallaby Onychogalea fraenata Gould which has a restricted range within a heavily infested reserve” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “Toxic (cardiac glycosides) to animals both domestic and native” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee 2003). B. delagoense may also be of concern to other threatened species in regards to food supplies.	MH	L
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	“B. delagoense is of concern for its competition with native herbs and forbs which are the diet of the endangered macropod, bridled nail-tailed wallaby Onychogalea fraenata” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “There would be a net loss of native vegetation through competition particularly in poor soil conditions” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management committee). “A highly invasive weed that prevents native revegetation” (Pittwater council 2008). Other fauna may depend on the same or similar food sources that are excluded by B. delagoense and may suffer a reduction in their food source as well as a reduction in habitat.	MH	M
15. Benefits fauna?	“In Madagascar, sunbirds Nectarinia sp. (Nectariniidae) have been observed visiting the flowers of B. delagoense. However, in Australia, honeybees Apis mellifera have been observed entering the corolla tube of B. delagoense flowers and emerging covered with pollen” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Could provide some assistance as a food source for native fauna.	MH	MH
16. Injurious to fauna?	“Toxic (cardiac glycosides) to animals both domestic and native” (Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee 2003). Toxic to fauna.	H	M
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	“In Madagascar, sunbirds Nectarinia sp. (Nectariniidae) have been observed visiting the flowers of B. delagoense. However, in Australia, honeybees Apis mellifera have been observed entering the corolla tube of B. delagoense flowers and emerging covered with pollen” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Could provide a minimal food source for some minor pest species.	Ml	M
18. Provides harbour?	“To 1m high, occasionally to 3m, slender with simple stems” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “± leafless at flowering time; 15-130mm long and 2-6mm wide; apex with 2-9 teeth” (AGIS 2008). Given the dimensions and habit of the plant it is unlikely that it could provide harbour for animals.	L	MH
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	“After consuming B. delagoense flowers, in “the next 20 days 122 deaths [of approximately 775 weaner cattle] occurred… A reduction in stocking rate can lead to stronger grass production and suppression of Bryophyllum spp.” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Approximately 122= 15.75% of 775 weaners is considered a major impact on the quantity of produce.	MH	H
20. Impact quality?	Although there is evidence that B. delagoense is toxic to livestock and can result in death, no information was found to suggest that if livestock survived a poisoning episode, that the quality of product would be affected.	M	L
21. Affect land value?	“Dead plants are still toxic and still present a poisoning risk to livestock if eaten” (DPI NSW 2005). “After consuming B. delagoense flowers, in “the next 20 days 122 deaths [of approximately 775 weaner cattle] occurred… Treatment can be more expensive than most poisoned animals are worth…Chinchilla Shire Council have spent an average of $27,000 (1998 dollars) per year for the last 5 years on the control of B. delagoense and the hybrid. This equates to about $180 ha^-1, comprising initial control and subsequent follow up” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Given that B. delagoense is costly to control and contributes to the loss of livestock, it could be a major contributing factor in lowering land value.	H	MH
22. Change land use?	“When using fire, [for control,] fence off infested areas to limit stock access and build up a fuel load…Regrowth should be spot sprayed… Toxic (cardiac glycosides) to animals both domestic and native” (DPI NSW 2005). “Bryophyllum infestations once cultivated and planted to crops, lawns or pastures are no longer a problem. Such a strategy may be useful if the infested area is to be put back into grazing or crop production” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Land may be down graded in the priority of land use to one with less agricultural return.	MH	M
23. Increase harvest costs?	“After consuming B. delagoense flowers, within “the next 20 days 122 deaths [of approximately 775 weaner cattle] occurred… Treatment can be more expensive than most poisoned animals are worth…Chinchilla Shire Council have spent an average of $27,000 (1998 dollars) per year for the last 5 years on the control of B. delagoense and the hybrid. This equates to about $180ha^-1, comprising initial control and subsequent follow up… (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “The treatment is costly: for one adult cow, $70 or more, plus veterinary fees” (Land Protection, DPI QLD 2008). Costs incurred because of B. delagoense can include the death of stock, treatment of poisoned stock and control of the infestations on a property. This could become a major increase in labour costs etc, when dealing with poisoned animals and controlling infestations.	H	H
24. Disease host/vector?	The following sources did not contain any information in regards to being a host or vector for diseases: Hannan-Jones and Playford (2002); Land Protection, DPI QLD (2008); DPI NSW (2005); Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003); Pittwater council (2008).	L	MH

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	“In Madagascar, B. delagoense is more commonly found in the drier southern region… As the parent plant dies back post flowering it also releases a rain of seed that can germinate under suitable, albeit unknown, conditions” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Unknown germination requirements.	M	L
2. Establishment requirements?	“When plants do grow in open areas they require a sheltered/ moist microclimate with organic matter for establishment, such as under a fallen branch or log… In Queensland and northern New South Wales, B. delagoense distinctly prefers the leaf litter within the drip/ shade zone of trees, with few plants growing in open bare areas…Bryophyllum delagoense rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Can establish under moderate canopy /litter cover.	MH	H
3. How much disturbance is required?	“B. delagoense is never found growing as a weed in disturbed areas, but always occurs as a natural element in very specific habitats …In Queensland and northern New South Wales, B. delagoense distinctly prefers the leaf litter within the drip/ shade zone of trees, with few plants growing in open bare areas…Many infestations are associated with tree-lined roadsides where mechanical work has disturbed the soil surface and spread plantlets from existing infestations… In Madagascar, B. delagoense…[is] commonly associated with Xerophyta spp., Zornia glochidiata in xerophilous bush or ‘spiny desert’… Bryophyllum delagoense rarely colonizes areas that have no canopy cover” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Establishes in healthy and undisturbed natural ecosystems.	H	H
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	“Erect succulent herb” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Life form other.	L	H
5. Allelopathic properties?	“Bryophyllum delagoense is not known to suppress good pasture in open situations in Australia but herbaceous species in shady situations may be at risk. Grasses under shade can also be suppressed” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Demonstrates some allelopathic properties.	MH	H
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	“Cattle trodden or uprooted Bryophyllum spp. exhibit a gravitropic response and reorientate to the vertical… Tannins serve as feeding deterrents and defence compounds against insect herbivores and pathogens, and accumulate preferentially in peripheral tissue… Leaves of …B delagoense were not eaten by starved desert locusts Schistocera gregaria Forskal. Acetone extracts of both of these species yielded an antifeedant, which could inhibit the feeding of S. gregaria…Cattle have generally been poisoned when they have been placed under unusual or stressful conditions…Less frequently, being crowded into infested parts of paddocks by floods, or cold weather, or running out of available feed in drought has caused cattle to eat lethal amounts of this plant” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Bryophyllum delagoense is not currently controlled by a biological agent. (Franz Mahr, pers. Comm.) Due to this only being consumed in unusual circumstances, it will be considered as favoured by heavy grazing as it is not eaten normally and is not under a biological control program in Australia/ New Zealand.	H	H
7. Normal growth rate?	“Erect succulent herb to 1m high, occasionally to 3m… B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum and the hybrid can be bi- or triennials depending on the season of establishment and environmental and intra-specific effects” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). As this plant can grow to 3m in no more than 3 years, it is assumed it is a fast grower for its life form.	H	MH
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	“Popular pot and garden plants in Australia because of their…drought tolerance…B. delagoense appears to be frost intolerant in Australia. In frost prone areas, the main infestations are limited to protected areas under tree canopies…All Bryophyllum spp. utilize crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) that is a unique ecophysiological adaptation to arid or otherwise water stressed environments…The success of Bryophyllum spp. In Australia appears to be due in part to their ability to withstand drought…Bryophyllum delagoense leaves that are affected by drought at an immature stage develop an enhanced resistance to water loss…Infestations and the accompanying debris can be burned after fencing of from grazing or removing stock to obtain sufficient fuel loads, grading firebreaks and obtaining required permits” Bryophyllum spp. are listed as one “of the twelve most invasive ornamental plants of coastal Queensland fore dunes” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). As a fore dune plant it can tolerate occasional flooding by sea water. Highly tolerant to drought, not tolerant to frost or fire. Tolerant of two and susceptible to one or more.	ML	H
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	“Suckering at the base [and] notched towards apex where plantlets are produced. A single plant of B. delagoense [is] capable of producing up to 20 000 seeds from its inflorescence” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Both vegetative and sexual reproduction.	H	H
10. Number of propagules produced?	“A single plant of B. delagoense [is] capable of producing up to 20 000 seeds from its inflorescence” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Produces more than 2000 seeds per flowering event.	H	H
11. Propagule longevity?	Cumulative germination of freshly collected B. delagoense seed was studied for germination rates by Hannan-Jones and Playford (2002) with results indicating that more than half of seeds had germinated within six months. This information indicates that most seeds will have germinated within five years.	L	MH
12. Reproductive period?	“Many Bryophyllum spp. are semelparous biennials or triennials. Semelparity is a distinct life history where a single sexual reproductive event is followed by plant death. B. delagoense, B. daigremontianum and the hybrid can be bi- or triennials depending on the season of establishment and environmental and intra-specific effects” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “Reproducing rapidly by vegetative offsets at the leaf tips” (AGIS 2008) Considering this species only lives for three years at most and reproduces rapidly, it is assumed that it reproduces for three years in worst case scenario.	MH	MH
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	“Many Bryophyllum spp. are semelparous biennials or triennials. Semelparity is a distinct life history where a single sexual reproductive event is followed by plant death. B. delagoense, B.daigremontianum and the hybrid can be bi- or triennials depending on the season of establishment and environmental and intra-specific effects” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). “Reproducing rapidly by vegetative offsets at the leaf tips” (AGIS 2008) Considering this species only lives for three years at most and reproduces rapidly, it is assumed that it could reproduce separate vegetative individuals in less than one year.	H	MH
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	“Plant was placed in dumps, which were usually in gullies, and hence it washed down into local seasonal water-courses… Plantlets and seeds may be spread short distances by rain-wash, with further movement along watercourses, especially during periods of flooding. The minute seeds adhering to fur or feathers of passing animals and birds may also aid the spread… Bryophyllum delagoense reproduces vegetatively from epiphyllous buds on the pegs at the apex of the leaves and sometimes forms vegetative buds on the senescing inflorescences after seed set” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). Seeds can be dispersed by birds.	H	H
15. How far do they disperse?	“Plant was placed in dumps, which were usually in gullies, and hence it washed down into local seasonal water-courses… Plantlets and seeds may be spread short distances by rain-wash, with further movement along watercourses, especially during periods of flooding. The minute seeds adhering to fur or feathers of passing animals and birds may also aid the spread… Dense infestations of B. delagoense that originated from a garden planting, about two kilometres upstream,” (Hannan-Jones and Playford 2002). As seed can be washed along water courses, it is expected that they will travel over one kilometre.	H	H

References

AGIS (2007) Agricultural Geo-Referenced Information System, Available at www.agis.agric.za (verified 24/11/2008)

Department of Primary Industries, New South Wales (2005) Primefacts: Mother of millions. Available at http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/44727/Mother_of_millions_-_Primefact_45-final.pdf (verified 18/11/2008)

Franz Mahr (2008) Technical Officer Department of Primary Industries. 23/11/08 Victoria Personal communication

Hannan-Jones MA & Playford J (2002) The biology of Australian weeds 40. Bryophyllum Salisb. species. Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 42-57.

Hunter and Central Coast Weed Management Committee (2003) Regional weed management plan to control mother of millions (Bryophyllum delagoense) in the Hunter and Central Coast. Available at http://www.portstephens.nsw.gov.au/files/1342/File/rwmp%20mom%20version1final.pdf (verified on 18/11/08)

Land Protection, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland (DPI QLD) (2008) Fact sheet: Mother-of-millions. Available at
http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Biosecurity_EnvironmentalPests/IPA-Mother-Millions-PP33.pdf (verified 18/11/2008)

Pittwater council (2008) Mother of millions. Available at http://www.pittwater.nsw.gov.au/environment/noxious_weeds/herbs/mother_of_millions (verified 18/11/2008)

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2008) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at
http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 01 December 2008).

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2008) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 01 December 2008).

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