Swamp foxtail grass (Pennisetum alopecuroides)

Present distribution

Scientific name:	Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.
Common name(s):	Swamp foxtail grass

map showing the present distirbution of swamp foxtail grass

Map showing the present distribution of this weed.

Habitat:

Grows in grassland, open woodland (Carr et al. 1992), damp places in cleared forest or woodland, mountain gullies (Burbidge 1966), in the vicinity of watercourses or swamps (Burbidge 1968), margins of rice fields, grassy hillsides, dry to bare ground, rocky places, seacoasts (Koyama 1987), plantations of subtropical crops (Tsvelev 1984), open plains (boggy during the rains), rough pasture (Bor 1960), grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest (Carr et al. 1992), poorly drained, coastal habitats, degraded pastures (Kleinschmidt & Johnson 1979). Tolerant to drought, waterlogging, salinity, frost. Susceptible to fire (Darke 1992; Jing, Lin 2004; Zimmerman 2002; USDA 2006).

Potential distribution

Potential distribution produced from CLIMATE modelling refined by applying suitable landuse and vegetation type overlays with CMA boundaries

Map Overlays Used

Land Use:
Broadacre cropping; forestry; pasture dryland; pasture irrigation; water

Ecological Vegetation Divisions:
Coastal; heathland; grassy/heathy dry forest; swampy scrub; freshwater wetland (permanent); treed swampy wetland; lowland forest; foothills forest; forby forest; damp forest; riparian; wet forest; high altitude shrubland/woodland; high altitude wetland; alpine treeless; granitic hillslopes; rocky outcrop shrubland; western plains woodland; basalt grassland; alluvial plains grassland; semi-arid woodland; alluvial plains woodland; ironbark/box; riverine woodland/forest; freshwater wetland (ephemeral); saline wetland; chenopod shrubland; chenopod mallee; hummock-grass mallee; lowan mallee

Colours indicate possibility of Pennisetum alopecuroides infesting these areas.

In the non-coloured areas the plant is unlikely to establish as the climate, soil or landuse is not presently suitable.

map showing the potential distribution of swamp foxtail grass

Red= Very high	Orange = Medium
Yellow = High	Green = Likely

Impact

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Social
1. Restrict human access?	Grass species to a height of 1.5m (Darke 1992) – minimal or negligible impact	l	mh
2. Reduce tourism?	Grass species to a height of 1.5m with purple flowers (Darke 1992) and are “densely tufted in large clumps” (Koyama 1987) – minor effects to aesthetics	ml	mh
3. Injurious to people?	Not toxic (USDA 2006) – no effect, no prickles, no injuries	l	m
4. Damage to cultural sites?	Grass species to a height of 1.5m with purple flowers (Darke 1992) and are “densely tufted in large clumps” (Koyama 1987) – moderate visual effect	ml	mh
Abiotic
5. Impact flow?	“The flow resistance in river decreases when the plants are dormant, as in autumn and winter” (Rhee et al. 2008) – serious impacts both to surface and subsurface water flow	h	h
6. Impact water quality?	“On the Northern Tablelands it is common on damp sites, especially in the vicinity of watercourses or swamps, where it may grow in association with mat grass” (Burbidge 1968). It is also deciduous (PFAF 2009) and grows to a height of 1.5m (Darke 1992) – noticeable but moderate effects in both dissolved oxygen and light; causing increased algal growth	mh	mh
7. Increase soil erosion?	“densely tufted in large clumps” (Koyama 1987) – low probability of large scale soil erosion	l	mh
8. Reduce biomass?	Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992) – biomass significantly decreased	h	mh
9. Change fire regime?	It is highly flammable (Killcare Wagstaffe 2008), is “densely tufted in large clumps” (Koyama 1987) and invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992) – moderate change to both frequency and intensity of fire risk	mh	m
Community Habitat
10. Impact on composition (a) high value EVC	EVC = Wetland formation (E); CMA = West Gippsland; Bioregion = Gippsland Plain; VH CLIMATE potential. Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009) Monoculture within a specific layer; displaces all species within a strata/layer	h	h
(b) medium value EVC	EVC = Grassy Riverine Forest (D); CMA = North Central; Bioregion = Murray Fans; VH CLIMATE potential. Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009) Monoculture within a specific layer; displaces all species within a strata/layer	h	h
(c) low value EVC	EVC = Heathy Woodland (LC); CMA = Glenelg Hopkins; Bioregion = Glenelg Plain; VH CLIMATE potential. Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009) Monoculture within a specific layer; displaces all species within a strata/layer	h	h
11. Impact on structure?	Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009) – major effects on all layers. Forms monoculture; no other strata/layers present	h	m
12. Effect on threatened flora?	Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009). However it is not yet known to effect Bioregional Priority 1A or VROT spp	mh	l
Fauna
13. Effect on threatened fauna?	Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009). However it is not yet known to effect Bioregional Priority or VROT spp	mh	l
14. Effect on non-threatened fauna?	Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992). “Plants form impenetrable dense stands” (PFAF 2009). Also competes with more edible species (Burbidge 1966) – habitat changed dramatically, leading to the possible extinction of non-threatened fauna	h	mh
15. Benefits fauna?	Due to its course nature it is avoided by grazing species (Bor 1960). However is reported to be visited by insects such as butterflies and bees (Dave’s Garden 2006) – provides very little support to desirable species	h	m
16. Injurious to fauna?	Not toxic (USDA 2006) – no effect	l	m
Pest Animal
17. Food source to pests?	Avoided by many grazing species (Burbidge 1966 and Burbidge 1968) – provides minimal food for pest animals	l	mh
18. Provides harbor?	Clumping grass species to 1.5m tall (Darke 1992) – capacity to harbour rabbits or foxes at low densities or as overnight cover	mh	mh
Agriculture
19. Impact yield?	Competes with more desirable pasture species (Burbidge 1966 and Burbidge 1968) and spreads “rapidly over cultivated pastures and has caused the deterioration of grasslands in S. Japan in recent years” (Akiyama et al. 1989). It is a pest in degraded pastures (Csurhes, Edwards 1998) and grows in plantations of subtropical crops (Tsvelev 1984) – major impact on quantity of produce	mh	mh
20. Impact quality?	It has “caused the deterioration of grasslands in S. Japan in recent years” (Akiyama et al. 1989) – major impact on the quality of produce	mh	h
21. Affect land value?	Competes with more desirable pasture species (Burbidge 1966 and Burbidge 1968) and spreads “rapidly over cultivated pastures and has caused the deterioration of grasslands in S. Japan in recent years” (Akiyama et al. 1989). It is a pest in degraded pastures (Csurhes, Edwards 1998) and grows in plantations of subtropical crops (Tsvelev 1984) – however affect on land value is unknown	m	l
22. Change land use?	Competes with more desirable pasture species (Burbidge 1966 and Burbidge 1968) and spreads “rapidly over cultivated pastures and has caused the deterioration of grasslands in S. Japan in recent years” (Akiyama et al. 1989). May need to graze more hardy species – downgrading of the priority land use, to one with either less agricultural return	mh	mh
23. Increase harvest costs?	Competes with more desirable pasture species (Burbidge 1966 and Burbidge 1968) and spreads “rapidly over cultivated pastures and has caused the deterioration of grasslands in S. Japan in recent years” (Akiyama et al. 1989). It is a pest in degraded pastures (Csurhes, Edwards 1998) and grows in plantations of subtropical crops (Tsvelev 1984). However the impact on harvest cost is unknown	m	l
24. Disease host/vector?	Black choke disease has been found on P. alopecuroides however it has not yet been shown that this is caused by the same Ephelis species that causes Black choke disease in rice (Lewis Roberts, White 2006) – unknown	m	l

Invasive

QUESTION	COMMENTS	RATING	CONFIDENCE
Establishment
1. Germination requirements?	Has been shown that after an exposure to cold temperatures germination of P. alopecuroides is greatly enhanced (Washitani, Masuda 1990) – requires natural seasonal disturbances	mh	h
2. Establishment requirements?	Present in open woodland (Carr et al. 1992) and requires full sun or light shade (Darke 1992) – can establish under moderate canopy/litter cover	mh	mh
3. How much disturbance is required?	Invades lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest and woodland (Carr et al. 1992) – establishes in healthy and undisturbed natural ecosystems	h	mh
Growth/Competitive
4. Life form?	Perennial grass (Burbidge 1966)	mh	mh
5. Allelopathic properties?	Not allelopathic (USDA 2006)	l	m
6. Tolerates herb pressure?	Due to its course nature it is avoided by grazing species (Bor 1960). Not eaten by stock (Burbidge 1966), “the leaves are harsh and unpalatable to sheep and are rarely grazed” (Burbidge 1968) – favoured by heavy grazing pressure as not eaten by animals/insects and not under a biological control program in Australia/New Zealand	h	mh
7. Normal growth rate?	It spreads “rapidly over cultivated pastures and has caused the deterioration of grasslands” (Akiyama et al. 1989) – rapid growth rate that will exceed most other species of the same life form	h	h
8. Stress tolerance to frost, drought, w/logg, sal. etc?	Once established able to flower under drought conditions (Darke 1992). Tolerant of waterlogging used in a wetland system (Jing, Lin 2004). Possible susceptibly to salinity killed when wetland was intruded by sea water (Jing, Lin 2004). However has been listed as a species of high salt tolerance (Zimmerman 2002). Minimum temperature reported as -27C, with a minimum frost free days reported as 160, therefore frost tolerant (USDA 2006). Not fire resistant (USDA 2006) – Tolerant to drought, waterlogging, salinity, frost. Susceptible to fire.	h	m
Reproduction
9. Reproductive system	Has short rhizomes and sets seed (Koyama 1987), self sows (Darke 1992)	h	mh
10. Number of propagules produced?	High fruit/seed abundance (USDA 2006). A clump can display multiple inflorescences (Burnie et al 1998). Each seed head appears to have 10’s – 100’s of seeds (Koyama 1987) Therefore probably capable of producing 1000-2000 seeds potentially more.	h	m
11. Propagule longevity?	Unknown	m	l
12. Reproductive period?	Perennial grass (Burbidge 1966). Described as having a moderate lifespan (USDA 2006) – mature plant produces viable propagules for 3-10 years	mh	m
13. Time to reproductive maturity?	Flowers in first year (Garden Web 2009)	h	ml
Dispersal
14. Number of mechanisms?	Spread externally on animals, by wind and by water (Carr et al. 1992).	mh	mh
15. How far do they disperse?	Seed spread rated as slow (USDA 2006). However spread externally on animals, by wind and by water (Carr et al. 1992) – very likely that at least one propagule will disperse greater than one kilometer	h	mh

References

Akiyama T., Yamagata Y., Shibayama M., Hayashi H. and Fujita H. (1989) Monitoring weed infestation of grasslands using Landsat data. Proceedings of the XVI International Grassland Congress. 1389-1390.

Bor NL (1960) The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan (Excluding Bambuseae). Pergamon Press.

Burbidge NT (1966) Australian Grasses: Volume One, Australian Capital Territory and Southern Tablelands of New South Wales. Angus and Robertson.

Burbidge NT (1968) Australian Grasses: Volume Two, Northern Tablelands of New South Wales. Angus and Robertson.

Carr GW, Yugovic JV, Robinson KE (1992) Environmental weed invasions in Victoria: conservation and management implications. Department of Conservation and Environment, Clifton Hill.

Csurhes S, Edwards R (1998) National weeds program. Potential environmental weeds in Australia – Candidate species for preventative control. Queensland Department of Natural Resources. Available at http://www.weeds.gov.au/publications/books/pubs/potential.pdf/publications/books/pubs/potential.pdf (verified 27 May 2009).

Darke R (1994) Manual of Grasses. Timber Press, Oregon.

Dave’s Garden (2006) Dave’s Garden “For Gardeners… By Gardeners”. Available at http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/1490/ (verified16 Dec 2006).

Dave’s Garden: Dave’s Garden “For Gardeners… By Gardeners”. viewed 16 Dec 2006, http://davesgarden.com/

Garden Web (2009) Pennisetum alopecuroides ‘Hameln’. Available at http://forums.gardenweb.com/forums/load/grasses/msg0819360611916.html (verified 27 May 2009).

Jing SR, Lin YF (2004) Seasonal effect on ammonia nitrogen removal by constructed wetlands treating polluted river water in southern Taiwan. Environmental Pollution. 127, 291-301.

Killcare Wagstaffe (2008) Newsletter. Killcare Wagstaffe Trust, Wagstaffe. Available at http://www.killcarewagstaffetrust.org.au/files/newsletterJan2008.doc (verified 27 May 2009).

Koyama T (1987) Grasses of Japan and its Neighbouring Regions: An Identification Manual. Kodansha. Tokyo.

Lewis Roberts E, White JF Jr (2006) Black chocke disease caused by an Ephelis sp. on Purple Fountain Grass in Maryland. Plant Disease 90, 112

Plants for a Future (PFAF) (2009) Database search results: Pennisetum alopecuroides. Available at http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Pennisetum+alopecuroides (verified 20 May 2009).

Rhee DS, Woo H, Kwon BA, Ahn HK (2008) Hydraulic resistance of some selected vegetation in open channel flows. River Research and Applications 24, 673-687.

Richardson FJ, Richardson RG, Shepherd (2006) Weeds of the South-East; an identification guide for Australia. R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Meredith.

Tsvelev NN (1984) Grasses of the Soviet Union; part II. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

USDA (2006) United States Department of Agriculture, PLANTS Profile, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Plants Database, viewed 14 Dec 2006 http://plants.usda.gov/

Washitani I, Masuda M (1990) A comparative study of the germination characteristics of seeds from a moist tall grassland community. Functional Ecology 4, 543-557.

Zimmerman B. (2002) Salt Tolerant Plant Material. Hort-Pro On-line Magzine. Viewed 4 Dec 2002, http://rittenhouse.ca/hortmag

Global present distribution data references

Australian National Herbarium (ANH) (2009) Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Diversity and Research, Available at http://www.anbg.gov.au/avh/ (verified 27 May 2009).

Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) (2006) Flora information system [CD-ROM], Biodiversity and Natural Resources Section, Viridans Pty Ltd, Bentleigh.

Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) (2009) Global biodiversity information facility, Available at http://www.gbif.org/ (verified 20 May 2009).

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